Influence of National Culture
on
Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements
for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
By
Tauha Hussain Ali
B.E., PGD (Civil), MSc (Project Management)
From
School of Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology
Griffith University
Gold Coast Campus
May 2006
Declaration
This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any
university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material
previously published or written by another person except where due reference is
made in the thesis itself.
Tauha Hussain Ali
May, 2006
i
Acknowledgements
Firstly, All the glory and my heartiest thanks goes to God Almighty for His
provisions, mercy and help, without which this doctoral research would have been
impossible to achieve.
I would like to wholeheartedly and with deepest gratitude thank my principal
supervisor, Professor Sherif Mohamed, for his excellent guidance and continuous
and relentless encouragement at every stage of the preparation and writing of this
thesis. His patience, kindness and approachable manner was much appreciated. I
consider it a privilege to have worked under the supervision of such a high calibre
researcher. I truly believe that this thesis would not have been completed without his
magnificent support. My deepest thank also to my associate supervisor, Dr. Rodney
Stewart, for his encouragement, interest and support.
I spent thirty-nine months at Griffith University undertaking my PhD degree. This
journey has been filled with many challenges and personal tests of will. Throughout
this time I met many friends who helped me during difficult times and with whom I
shared many happy moments.
Thanks are due to Professor Yew-Chaye Loo (Dean, Faculty of Engineering and IT)
and Dr. Sam Fragomeni (Head, School of Engineering) for their moral and financial
support.
I am grateful to Dr. Khalid Ahmed (Associate Professor, Bond University) and
Rajaguru Gulasekaran (Assistant Professor, Bond University) for their valuable
advice and assistance in statistics.
I am indeed thankful to Sandra Paine, Mary Ping, Carol Tseng, Heather Elliot and
Lucy Dickson for providing their administrative support and assistance throughout
my PhD research.
ii
I would also like to acknowledge a very good friend of mine, J ae Ho Lee, for his
active assistance and support in editing this PhD thesis.
I am indebt to my another friend Ali Sher Siddiqui for his continuous help, advice
and facilitating contacts within the construction industry and for always keeping my
morale high whenever I was down.
This thesis would not have been completed without the assistance of the following
individuals who generously contributed valuable help in the data collection phase:
• Engr. Mohiuddin Siddiqui (Project Director Sachel Engineering Works)
• Mr. Saeed Awan (Director of Centre for the Improvement of Working
Conditions & Environment (CIWC&E)).
• Engr. Irfan J hatial
• Engr. J affer Makhdoom
• Engr. Shakeel Almani
• Engr. Asif Memon
• Engr. J ehangir Mangi
• Engr. Niaz Khuhawar
I also wish to thank Suzan Barrett of Griffith University Post-Graduate Association
(GUPSA) for her help and assistance in statistics; Gold Coast Association of Post
Graduates (GCAP) for awarding my conference grant and Carmel Wild for her
professional editing of the thesis.
I would be failing in my duty if I did not thank all my RHD colleagues and the
Academic Staff of the School of Engineering for their encouragement and moral
support.
Last but by no means least, My heartiest words of gratitude and final
acknowledgement is to my family members: Father (Ghulam Hussain); Mother
(Afroze); Wife (Saima); Son (Hammas); Brother and his Spouse (Saad and Nusrat);
and Sister and her Spouse (Saman and Shaukat). I thank you all from the bottom of
iii
my heart for your un-matched love, patience, endless support (moral and financial)
and constant prayers.
iv
List of Publications
v
List of Publications
The following conference papers were produced to disseminate the concept and
some results of the work undertaken by the author during the course of this PhD
research study.
• Mohamed, S. and Ali, T. (2005). “Safety Behaviour in the Construction Industry
in Pakistan”. Proceedings of the 4
th
Triennial International Conference,
“Rethinking and Revitalizing Construction Safety, Health, Environment and
Quality”, 17-20 May, Port Elizabeth, South Africa, pp.64-75.
• Ali, T. and Mohamed, S. (2005) “Predicting Safe Work Behaviour: The Case of
Pakistan”. Proceedings of the 3
rd
International Conference on Construction in
the 21
st
Century (CITC-III) “Advancing Engineering, Management and
Technology”,15-17, September, Athens, Greece, pp.247-254.
• Ali, T. and Mohamed, S. (2005) “Empirical Investigation of Managers
Preferences for Construction Safety Practices in Pakistan”. Proceedings of the 1
st
International Conference on Construction Engineering and Management
(ICCEM), 16-19 October, Seoul, Korea, pp.486-490
Abstract
vi
Abstract
Safety in the construction industry has always been a major issue. Wherever reliable
records are available, construction is found to be one of the most dangerous on
safety and health criteria, particularly in developing countries. Though much
improvement in construction safety has been achieved, the industry still continues to
lag behind most other industries with regard to safety. In developing countries,
safety rules usually do not exist; if any exist, the regulatory authority is usually very
weak in implementing such rules effectively. Further, work hazards at the
construction workplace are either not perceived at all, or perceived to be less
dangerous than what they actually are.
The safety climate of any organisation consists of employees’ attitudes towards, and
perceptions of, health and safety behaviour. Construction workers’ attitudes towards
safety are influenced by their perceptions of risk, management, safety rules and
procedures. Although research into safety climate has continued for more than two
decades, there is still no universally accepted theory of safety climate. Nevertheless,
positive correlation exists between workers’ safe behaviour and safety climate in
construction site environments.
Workers’ attitudes and behaviours discernible in safety climate, could be regarded as
the micro-elements of an organisation, which themselves are determined by macro-
elements of safety management systems and practices. Thus, it could be argued that
management safety systems and practices permeate down through the organisation
to the workforce. Classic construction safety management functions (such as
recruitment, training, supervision, etc.) are determined by different conceptions of
the role and nature of management effectiveness. These conceptions are underpinned
by related cultural values. Therefore, national culture can be a key characteristic that
may manifest itself in varying approaches to the safe work behavior.
Pakistan is a developing country that is currently enjoying a relatively strong growth
in construction activities. Unfortunately, Pakistan’s construction industry suffers
Abstract
vii
from poor safety and health conditions. The framework of the existing occupational
and health conditions is fragmented and inadequately enforced, making construction
sites more hazardous. It may even be argued that relevant regulations are outdated
and irrelevant in day-to-day construction operations.
This thesis is broadly concerned with national culture and its influence on safety
climate in the construction industry in Pakistan. More specifically, it investigates the
safety perceptions, attitudes, and behaviour of Pakistani construction workers and
management safety practices. It presents the empirical results of a number of
questionnaire surveys administrated in Pakistan targeting construction workers, and
managers with safety management responsibilities. Based upon the survey analysis
results, this study demonstrates that the majority of Pakistani construction workers
have a good degree of risk awareness and self-rated competence, and a relatively
high degree of safety awareness. Further it was found, empirically, that overall
workers’ intentional behaviour seems to be best explained by workers’ attitudes
towards their own and managements’ safety responsibilities, as well as their
perception of the risk they are generally exposed to in their workplace environment.
The study also showed that workers are more collective, feminist, believe in less
power distance and opt for higher uncertainty avoidance in their attitudes. The
analysis of the interrelationship between workers’ behaviour and national culture
revealed that the more workers working in a collective, feminist, and higher
uncertainty avoidance environments, the more they are going to exhibit safer
behaviour.
The management safety practices survey analysis showed that managers’ safety
management preferences are being influenced by their cultural trends. Their safety
related decisions, whether being developed in head office or on site, are influenced
by their high collectivistic, feministic, power distance and uncertainty avoidance
attitude. This study thus establishes a statistically significant positive relationship
between the factors of workers’ perceptions, attitudes and safe work behaviour, and
management practices.
Abstract
viii
Finally, this study gauges empirically the influence of cultural dimensions on
workers’ perceptions, attitudes, and safe work behaviour and managers’ safety
practices. The analysis showed that managers’ operational practices on site have the
most statistically significant relationship with workers’ attitudes and perceptions. It
was also found that the more collectivistic and higher uncertainty avoidance attitude
of workers, the stronger their safety attitudes and perceptions will be.
Table of Contents
ix
Table of Contents
Declaration ....................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... ii
List of Publications .......................................................................................................... v
Abstract ........................................................................................................................... vi
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................ xii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................xiii
Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. The Construction Industry....................................................................................... 1
1.2. Construction Industry in Developing Countries ..................................................... 3
1.3. Research Rationale.................................................................................................. 4
1.4. Research Objectives................................................................................................ 6
1.5. Research Design...................................................................................................... 7
1.6. Thesis Structure....................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 2 ...................................................................................................................... 12
Safety Climate................................................................................................................ 12
2.1. Safety Management in the Construction Industry................................................. 12
2.2. Safety Performance Management ......................................................................... 14
2.3. Safety Climate....................................................................................................... 16
2.3.1. Role of safety perceptions and attitudes in safety climate ........................ 23
2.3.2. Safety Climate and Safe Behaviour .......................................................... 24
2.3.3. Attitude and Behaviour ............................................................................. 25
2.3.4. Sub-Group Differences in Safety Climate ................................................ 25
2.3.5. Measurement Method ............................................................................... 26
2.3.6. Non-Uniformity in Safety Climate Factors............................................... 27
Chapter 3 ...................................................................................................................... 29
National Culture............................................................................................................. 29
3.1. National Culture and Construction Issues............................................................. 31
3.2. National Culture and Management ....................................................................... 33
3.3. Dimensions of National Culture ........................................................................... 34
Chapter 4 ...................................................................................................................... 40
Pakistan .......................................................................................................................... 40
4.1. Overview............................................................................................................... 40
4.2. Pakistani Culture ................................................................................................... 43
4.3. Pakistani Construction Industry............................................................................ 47
4.4. Construction Safety Practices in Pakistan............................................................. 50
Chapter 5 ...................................................................................................................... 54
Research Methodology .................................................................................................. 54
5.1. Introduction........................................................................................................... 54
5.2. Methodology ......................................................................................................... 54
5.2.1. Compilation of Relevant Knowledge........................................................ 56
5.2.2. Selection and Development of Data Collection Tools.............................. 56
Table of Contents
x
5.2.2.1. Questionnaire Survey................................................................. 57
5.2.2.1.1. Workers’ Survey ........................................................................ 59
5.2.2.1.2. Management Survey................................................................... 61
5.2.2.1.3. National Culture Survey (NCS) ................................................. 64
5.2.2.2. Face-to-Face Interviews............................................................. 64
5.2.3. Data Collection ......................................................................................... 65
5.2.3.1. Selection of Sites and Samples .................................................. 65
5.2.3.2. Data Collection Process ............................................................. 66
5.2.4. Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 67
Chapter 6 ...................................................................................................................... 68
Workers Survey Analysis & Results.............................................................................. 68
6.1. Background Information....................................................................................... 68
6.1.1. Experience................................................................................................. 69
6.1.2. Safety Training.......................................................................................... 70
6.2. Attitude and Perception Survey Analysis ............................................................. 70
6.2.1. Factor Analysis ......................................................................................... 70
6.2.2. Checks for Factor Analysis ....................................................................... 70
6.2.3. Factors Interpretation ................................................................................ 73
6.2.4. One-Way Analysis of Variance ................................................................ 74
6.3. Workers’ Behavioural Analysis ............................................................................ 75
6.3.1. Experience in Working at Heights ............................................................ 75
6.3.2. Frequency of the Situations Occurring on Site ......................................... 76
6.3.3. Perception of Risk..................................................................................... 77
6.4. Prediction of Workers Intentional Behaviour by Attitudes and Perceptions ........ 80
6.4.1. Binary Logistic Regression....................................................................... 80
6.4.2. Interpretation of Results............................................................................ 80
6.4.3. Bonferroni Type Adjustment .................................................................... 81
6.4.4. Assessment of Overall Model Fit.............................................................. 82
6.4.5. Factors Influencing Likelihood of Continue Working.............................. 83
6.5. Workers Cultural Analysis.................................................................................... 88
6.5.1. Factor Analysis ......................................................................................... 88
6.5.2. Factors Interpretation ................................................................................ 90
6.6. Prediction of Workers Intentional Behaviour through Cultural Dimensions........ 92
6.6.1. Bonferroni Type Adjustment .................................................................... 93
6.6.2. Assessment of Overall Model Fit.............................................................. 93
6.6.3. National Cultural Dimensions Influencing Workers Behaviour............... 94
6.7. Relationship between Workers’ Attitudes, Perceptions and Cultural
Dimensions............................................................................................................ 98
6.8. Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 100
Chapter 7 .................................................................................................................... 103
Managers Survey Analysis & Results.......................................................................... 103
7.1. Background Information..................................................................................... 103
7.1.1. T-Test for Independent Groups............................................................... 104
7.1.2. Working Experience................................................................................ 104
7.1.3. Safety Training........................................................................................ 105
7.2. Manager’s Safety Practices................................................................................. 106
7.2.1. Safety Plan .............................................................................................. 106
7.2.2. Safety Competence/Training................................................................... 107
7.2.3. Safety Monitoring ................................................................................... 107
7.2.4. Safety Communication............................................................................ 108
Table of Contents
xi
7.2.5. Safety Co-operation ................................................................................ 108
7.2.6. Suggestions for Improvement ................................................................. 109
7.3. Factors Analysis.................................................................................................. 110
7.3.1. Factors Interpretation .............................................................................. 111
7.4. Managers’ Cultural Survey (MCS) ..................................................................... 112
7.4.1. Factor Analysis ....................................................................................... 113
7.4.2. Factors Interpretation .............................................................................. 115
7.5. Relationship between Safety Management Systems and National Culture ........ 116
7.6. Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 118
Chapter 8 .................................................................................................................... 121
Prediction of Worker’s Perceptions and Attitudes through National Culture &
Manager’s Safety Practices................................................................................. 121
8.1. National Culture.................................................................................................. 122
8.1.1. Difference in Opinions in National Culture Items .................................. 123
8.1.2. National Culture Dimensions.................................................................. 127
8.2. Prediction of Worker’s Perceptions and Attitudes through National Culture and
Managers’ Safety Practices................................................................................. 129
8.2.1. Regression Analysis................................................................................ 129
8.2.2. Interpretation of Statistical Findings....................................................... 130
8.3. Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 133
Chapter 9 .................................................................................................................... 137
9.1. Background Information..................................................................................... 137
9.2. Key Findings ....................................................................................................... 137
9.3. Contributions to the Existing Body of Knowledge............................................. 145
9.4. Contributions to the Pakistani Construction Industry......................................... 146
9.5. Recommendations for Future Research .............................................................. 146
9.6. Closure ................................................................................................................ 147
References.................................................................................................................... 148
Appendix A.................................................................................................................. 162
Appendix B.................................................................................................................. 164
Appendix C.................................................................................................................. 170
Appendix D.................................................................................................................. 181
Appendix E .................................................................................................................. 183
List of Figures
xii
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Graphic Overview of Thesis Structure....................................................... 11
Figure 3.1 Mapping Pakistan and Australia on Hofstede’s Dimensions..................... 39
Figure 4.1 Map of Pakistan ......................................................................................... 41
Figure 5.1 Research Activities and Expected Output.................................................. 55
Figure 5.2 Flow Chart for the section 5.2.2 Depicting Developed Data Collection
Tools Procedure ......................................................................................... 57
Figure 6.1 Frequency of Distribution of Trades Interviewed...................................... 69
Figure 6.2 Workers Construction Experience in Years............................................... 69
Figure 6.3 Workers Experience in Working at Heights .............................................. 76
Figure 6.4 Frequency of Occurrence of the situations................................................. 76
Figure 6.5 Average Risk Perceived by Workers for Nine Behavioural Situations,
in a Scale of Low (0-1), Medium (1-2), and High (2-3). ........................... 79
Figure 6.6 Preferred Behaviour of the Workers .......................................................... 79
Figure 7.1 Professional Breakdown of Personnel Interviewed ................................. 104
Figure 7.2 Managers Construction Experience in Years........................................... 105
Figure 7.3 Graphical Distribution of Managers Safety Training Received............... 106
Figure 8.1 A model of statistically significant predicted relationships between IVs &
DVs .......................................................................................................... 132
xiii
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Safety Climate Factors( as presented in order of date of publication)..18
Table 4.1 Spot analysis of the construction sector in Pakistan (Board of
Investment, Government of Pakistan, http://www.pakboi.gov.pk)................... 47
Table 6.1 Factor Loadings for the 3-factor model of Workers’ Attitudes and
Perceptions ........................................................................................................ 73
Table 6.2 One way ANOVA analysis between Worker trades and their Attitude
and Perception Factors ...................................................................................... 75
Table 6.3 Summary of Logistic Regression Models Fit ...................................... 82
Table 6.4 Logistic Regression Table Predicting Workers’ Behaviours through
Attitudes and Perception ................................................................................... 85
Table 6.5 Factor Loadings for the 3-factor model of Workers Cultural Survey.. 90
Table 6.6 Summary of Logistic Regression Models Fit ...................................... 93
Table 6.7 Results of Logistic Regression for Workers Culture factors and
Behavioural Situations ...................................................................................... 94
Table 6.8 Correlations between Workers' Attitudes Perceptions and Cultural
Dimensions...................................................................................................... 100
Table 7.1 Factor Loadings for the 2-factor model of Managers’ Safety Practices
…………………………………………………………………….....111
Table 7.2 Factor Loadings for the 3-factor model of Managers Cultural Survey
……………………………………………………………………….114
Table 7.3 Statistically Significant Correlations between Safety Management
Survey and Cultural Factors............................................................................ 117
Table 8.1 Results of Multiple Regression Analysis ........................................... 133
Chapter1
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1. The Construction Industry
The construction industry plays a vital role in the social and economic development
of all countries. The importance and role of the construction industry in the economy
of any country has been confirmed by several studies, including Coble and Haupt
(1999). However, when compared with other (labour intensive) industries, the
construction industry has historically experienced a disproportionately high rate of
disabling injuries and fatalities for its size (Hinze, 1997). This industry alone
produces 30 % of all fatal industrial accidents across the European Union (EU), yet
it employs only 10 % of the working population; in the United States (US) it
accounts for 20 % of all fatal accidents and only 5 % of the employed (McKenzie et
al., 1999). In Japan, construction accidents account for 30 % - 40 % of the overall
total of industrial accidents, with the totals being 50 % in Ireland and 25 % in the
United Kingdom (Bomel, 2001). The numbers of fatalities within the industry are
only the tip of the iceberg, with thousands of major injuries, and even more minor
ones, resulting in lost time (Smallwood, 2000). Kartam and Bouz (1998) identified
the advancement in social sciences as having promoted a greater awareness of the
sanctity of life and the unacceptability of premature death due to work-related
accidents.
The injury data discussed above highlights that the high number of construction site
accidents is a universal problem of much concern. Though notable improvements in
construction worker safety at sites have been achieved, the industry continues to lag
behind most other industries with regard to safety (National Safety Council, 1999).
According to Davies and Tomasin (1996), there are a number of reasons why
accident records within the construction industry compare poorly with those of the
Chapter1
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
2
manufacturing industry. In factories, there is normally a controlled working
environment, with little change in the working procedures and equipment over long
periods; additionally, the labour force usually remains fairly constant. Thus once
identified, hazards can be remedied with relative ease, and the danger mitigated.
However the case is quite different in the construction industry as the working
environment is constantly changing.
Dangers to health and safety exist within the construction industry because of its
fragmented nature, the uncertain and technically complex nature of construction
work, the uncontrollable environment in which production takes place, the
employment practices, and the financial and time pressures imposed upon project
participants (King & Hudson, 1985; Halender & Holborn, 1991).
The construction industry is a mixture of different organisations, which directly and
indirectly influence the construction process. These organisations include property
developers, architects, engineers, quantity surveyors, accountants, lawyers, civil
engineering contractors, engineering contractors, management contractors, labourers,
subcontractors and specialist trades. The same complexity can be found with
construction workplaces. Within the workplace Construction processes involve
hazardous activities, such as working at height, manual handling, exposure to
hazardous materials, demolition, frame erection, lifting operations, scaffolding and
ground works, bulk materials and heavy equipment handling, as well as the varying
jobsite personnel and the regularly changing worksites. A further characteristic of
the industry, that makes management of this sector more troublesome, is the
unfavourably high supervisor-worker ratio. Supervisors who have more a personal
and positive relationship with workers have more favourable safety performance
records (Hinze, 1997; Levitt & Samelson, 1993). This relationship is harder to
develop if the ratio is too high, which is generally the case within the construction
industry (Smallwood, 2000). Rowlinson and Lingard (1996) have attributed the
prototype nature of construction projects, the transient nature of work, low education
levels of the workforce and high levels of subcontracting, as major contributing
factors to poor safety records within the construction industry worldwide.
Chapter1
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
3
1.2. Construction Industry in Developing Countries
There is a wide variation in economic structures, occupational structures, working
conditions, work environment, and the health status of workers in different regions
of the world, in different countries and in different sectors of the economy.
Therefore the mechanisation of the construction industry is not uniform throughout
the world. However, as stated earlier, the construction industry plays a vital role in
boosting the economy of any country, especially a developing country. It provides
the infrastructure required for other sectors of the economy to flourish. Many studies,
such as Coble and Haupt (1999) have shown that construction industry reflects the
level of economic development within the country. The construction sector
everywhere faces problems and challenges. However, in developing countries, these
difficulties and challenges are present alongside a general level of socio-economic
stress and a lower productivity rate when compared to developed countries (Ofori,
2000). Nevertheless it is generally believed that the industry is a good source of
employment at various levels of skills, from a general labour to semi-skilled, skilled
and specialist workforce. Other major areas that impacts on this sector are lack of
research and development, lack of trade and safety training, client dissatisfaction,
and the continuously increasing construction costs (all of which result in less
profitability).
Construction within developing countries often fails to meet the needs of modern
competitive businesses in the marketplace and rarely provides the best value for
clients and taxpayers (Datta, 2000). Additionally, this sector also demonstrates poor
performance in respect of health and safety due to the absence of any stringent
safety and construction laws. International labour organization (ILO) (1987)
attributes the poor health and safety records in construction projects within
developing countries to:
• The high proportion of small firms and the high number of self-employed
workers;
• The variety and comparatively short life of construction sites;
• The high turnover of workers;
• The large proportion of seasonal and migrant workers; and
Chapter1
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
4
• Various trades and occupations working in the same area.
Kothari et al. (1995) found that, in most developing countries, for example like India,
there are: no training programs for staff and workers; therefore, no orientation for
new staff or workers is conducted; hazards are not pointed out; and no safety
meetings are held. Employees are expected to learn from their own mistakes and
experience.
In adopting different approaches to health and safety in developed and developing
countries, two main differences can be identified. The first is the existence of
legislation and its effective implementation; the second is hazard awareness. In
developed countries, many safety acts and legislation exist and are implemented
effectively. Nominated safety officers promote hazard awareness with the help of
regular safety training sessions. In developing countries, however, safety rules
barely exist at all; and any that do are inappropriate, ineffective, out-of date and
based on conditions that prevailed while the country was still being colonised.
Additionally, the regulatory authority is usually very weak in implementing rules
effectively, and work hazards are either not perceived at all, or perceived to be less
dangerous than they actually are (Larcher & Sohail, 1999; Hinze et al., 1999).
1.3. Research Rationale
It is widely accepted that unsafe behaviour is intrinsically linked to workplace
accidents. A positive correlation exists between workers’ safe behaviour and the
safety climate within construction site environments. Construction workers’
attitudes towards safety are influenced by their perceptions of risk, management,
safety rules and procedures. A variety of studies, including Niskanen (1994);
Glendon and Litherland (2001) and Mohamed (2002), have investigated the
construction safety climate within developed countries. In the majority of these
studies, researchers have either developed a new model or replicated an already
tested model with a view to improving its adequacy. However, there is a lack of
research in this area in the context of developing countries.
Chapter1
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
5
Pakistan is a developing country that is currently enjoying relatively strong growth
in construction activities. Unfortunately, the enforcement of safety regulations is not
widespread within Pakistan. Some may even argue that the framework of existing
occupational and health conditions of Pakistan’s construction industry is fragmented
and inadequately enforced. Likewise in any industry, good health and safety
conditions constitute good and safe business practice. Therefore, it is believed the
integration of safety and health measures into a total management system, within the
construction sector in Pakistan, could contribute significantly to the cost efficiency,
quality assurance and environmental protection of the company and its employees.
Cultural differences have a significant impact upon industrial safety culture and help
in understanding the different approaches to accident prevention and safety
management. Knowledge of cultural differences cannot be acquired without first
understanding what culture is. Although “culture” is used widely to describe
variations among people from different nations or of different ethnicities, there is no
single, accepted definition. There is, however, a commonly-used set of
characteristics that helps to identify culture: 1) culture includes systems of values;
2) culture is learned, not innate; 3) culture distinguishes one group from another; and
4) culture influences beliefs, attitudes, perceptions and behaviour in a somewhat
uniform and predictable way (Bird, 2003). As safety climate is often portrayed as a
temporal measure of culture (Cheyne et al., 1998); this last characteristic of culture
is most important, as it relates the national culture to the safety climate. Safety
climate also refers to the shared perceptions, beliefs, attitudes and behaviour of the
worker, regarding safety in their workplace. Ngowi and Mothibi (1996), in a study
of 30 construction sites in Botswana, found cultural differences were a major reason
for viewing safety procedures differently. Site managers in that study stated that the
safety gear provided to employees from impoverished backgrounds were often sold.
The managers also referred to the cultural habits of drinking alcohol or taking herbal
drugs. They identified a tendency for workers to travel to work in smart clothes, and
to leave the construction site to spend their money as soon as they received their
wages. Experience with traditional construction techniques, such as the use of mud
mixed by hand, proved to be obstacles in getting workers to appreciate the need to
wear gloves when working with concrete. Further, some local cultures were
Chapter1
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
6
considered more emotional or more dominant, thus causing certain difficulties with
effective safety management.
The literature review revealed a lack of research work undertaken on the influence
(direct or indirect) of national culture on local safety conditions in the construction
industry. This deficiency is a major contributor to the development of this current
research rationale which focuses on workers’ and management characteristics, and
how these characteristics in turn, can influence the safety climate of the workplace.
This research study is broadly concerned with the safety climate and its determinants
in Pakistan’s construction industry. More specifically, the study investigates the
safety perceptions, attitudes, and behaviour of construction workers, and
management safety practices in Pakistan. It seeks to establish whether statistically
significant relationships exist between the factors of a worker’s perception, attitudes
and safe work behaviour and management practices. Finally, this study attempts to
gauge the influence of selected national cultural dimensions on the identified
statistically significant relationships.
1.4. Research Objectives
The primary objective of this PhD research project is to explore the influence of
national culture on construction safety climate in Pakistan. During this process
other objectives to be achieved include:
• Investigating perceptions and attitudes of Pakistani workers regarding safety
at construction sites;
• Identifying workers level of risk perception and their preferred behaviour in
risky situations;
• Establishing whether significant relationships exist between workers’
perceptions, attitudes and their behaviour;
• Investigating local construction safety management practices;
Chapter1
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
7
• Establishing whether statistically significant relationships exists between
workers’ perceptions, attitudes, work behaviour and management practices;
and
• Exploring the influence of key national, cultural dimensions on workers’
perceptions, attitudes and work behaviour, as well as management practices.
1.5. Research Design
Generally, research design directs the research strategy by defining an action plan
that proceeds from the initial research questions to the conclusion. It is the overall
configuration of the research, including specifying what kinds of evidence were
gathered and from where and how such evidence was interpreted, that provides
worthwhile answers to the research questions.
The research design of this study is based largely on the work recently conducted by
McDonald et al. (2001), which investigated the behaviours, perceptions and
attitudes associated with safety within the Irish construction industry. The adopted
research design is cross-sectional, based on a representative sample of eight (8) large
construction sites in three (3) large cities in Pakistan. This Doctoral (PhD) research
study was carried out in four (4) main phases: background research; fieldwork; data
analysis; and thesis writing.
This section summarizes the various research activities undertaken to achieve the
overall research objectives listed in Section 1.4. Each of the following research
activities is discussed in detail in Chapter Five.
Phase 1: Background research
1. Review of literature;
2. Research proposal formulation and approval;
3. Data collection tool identification and formulation:
• Workers’ attitudes and perceptions survey (WAS)
• Workers’ behavioural survey (WBS)
• Managers’ safety practices survey (MS 1)
Chapter1
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
8
• Managers’ safety practices survey (MS 2)
• National culture survey for workers and managers (NCS);
4. Identification of research sample; and
5. Requests for assistance and co-operation from different local construction
companies.
Phase 2: Fieldwork (Pakistani Construction Sites)
Stage One: Eight (8) construction sites were selected (detailed discussion on site
selection criteria and sampling is presented in Chapter Five).
Stage Two: Data were collected by:
1. Visiting eight (8) identified construction sites;
2. Meeting with site engineers, site managers and site supervisors, and
requesting that they complete the questionnaire surveys via face-to-face
interviews;
3. Filling out survey questionnaires from workers by the survey team; and
4. Visiting the head offices of companies operating those projects to secure
interviews and to obtain questionnaires from project directors / project
managers.
Phase 3: Data analysis
1. Firstly, all responses were checked to ensure completeness and readability,
before proceeding with the statistical analysis of the data through SPSS
(version 11.5).
2. Secondly, by applying various statistical techniques, such as descriptive
analysis, factor analysis, binary logistic regression and multiple regression
analysis, the previously listed objectives of this research study were realised.
Phase 4: Thesis writing
1. Thesis write-up and submission.
Chapter1
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
9
1.6. Thesis Structure
The structure of the thesis is describe in following paragraphs, with Figure 1.1
providing a graphic overview of the thesis structure
Chapter One summarizes the literature on the vulnerable nature of the construction
industry in terms of fatal and non-fatal accidents. It then describes the rationale for
the current research, followed by the setting of the research objectives and an
overview of the research methodology.
Following the introduction to the research study in Chapter one, Chapter Two
commences with the role and importance of safety management within the
construction industry. It then presents a review of the available literature, addressing
the different techniques for measuring safety performance within the industry.
Further, this chapter thoroughly reviews the concept of “Safety Climate” as an
identified popular safety performance measurement tool. In the safety climate
section, an introduction, along with a detailed review of the research to date on this
concept is presented. Additionally, the role of safety perceptions, attitudes and
behaviour within the safety climate is discussed. This chapter then provides a review
of the importance of safe work behaviour and its relationship to the safety climate
concept. Chapter Two concludes by exploring the literature on the measurement
methods of safety climate and also addresses the different reasons for the non-
uniformity in safety climate factors.
Chapter Three reviews the literature on national culture, including different
frameworks and cultural dimensions developed to measure national culture, along
with its importance to the construction industry.
Chapter Four provides a general overview on Pakistan, initially with an
introduction on the geographical position and salient features of the economy.
Further it discusses the national culture and reviews the literature on factors which
have influenced Pakistani culture. It then assesses Pakistan’s construction industry,
discussing the main players in the industry. The chapter then concludes with an
Chapter1
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
10
overview of the prevailing safety and health conditions in Pakistan’s construction
industry.
Chapter Five discusses in detail, the research methodology adopted for this
research study. The chapter contains a detailed description of the selection and
development of data collection tools, the method of data collection and a brief
introduction to the data analysis.
Chapter Six and Chapter Seven present, in detail, the data analysis and results of
the administrated surveys for Workers (WAS, WBS and WCS) and Management
(MS-I, MS-II and MCS) , respectively.
Chapter Eight discuses the results, in detail, of the role of national culture and
managers’ safety practices in predicating workers’ perceptions and attitudes, which
then affect their behaviour.
Chapter Nine provides the reader with a summary of the main findings discussed in
Chapter Six, Seven and Eight viz the possible contribution of this research study to
academic knowledge and its implication for the industry in Pakistan. It looks into
future research work avenues.
Chapter1
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
11
Review of Literature
Introduction
(Chapter One)
Research Methodology
(Chapter Five)
National Culture
(Chapter Three)
Safety Climate
(Chapter Two)
Pakistan: General Overview
(Chapter Four)
Workers’ Survey Analysis
(Chapter Six)
Managers’ Survey Analysis
(Chapter Seven)
Prediction of Workers’ Attitudes through
National Culture & Managers’ Safety
Practices
(Chapter Eight)
Summary & Conclusion
(Chapter Nine)
Figure 1.1 Graphic Overview of Thesis Structure
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
12
Chapter 2
Safety Climate
This chapter commences with the general overview of the importance of safety
management within the construction industry. The different techniques available to
measure safety performance are reviewed and, on the basis of that literature review,
safety climate is identified as a key safety performance measuring tool. Safety
climate and its related issues are then thoroughly discussed.
2.1. Safety Management in the Construction Industry
Construction accidents cause many human tragedies, de-motivate workers, disrupt
sites, delay project progress, and adversely affect the overall cost, productivity and
reputation of the construction industry (Mohamed, 1999). The deteriorating
conditions of workplace health and safety, as well as the emergence of new
regulations and international standards, have driven organisations to improve their
safety performance. Both developed and developing countries have recognised the
necessity of improving occupational safety and health management on construction
sites, particularly to reduce the number of occupational accidents. As a result,
organisations have, to some extent, shifted from a reactive to a proactive approach
toward safety (Weibye, 1996; Kandola, 1997; Crawley, 1999). Many construction
industries around the world are showing an increasing interest in the concept of
construction safety management as a means of reducing the potential for large-scale
disasters, as well as accidents associated with routine tasks. The causes of the
accidents are not only the carelessness of the workers; sometimes accidents happen
due to the failure of control, which is the responsibility of management. Thus the
shift of the focus on the accidents has been driven by the awareness that
organisational, managerial and human factors, rather than purely technical failures,
are prime cause of accidents (Weiek et al., 1999).
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
13
Governments worldwide have maintained an on-going commitment towards
establishing a working environment free of injury and disease. This commitment is
reflected by establishing performance-based workplace health and safety legislation
which sets generalised performance objectives and provides a system of clearly
stated responsibilities to encourage greater self-regulation for the construction
industry (Mohamed, 1999). However the introduction of legislation alone cannot be
the solution, with an improvement in the cultural approach being essential to
achieving workplace safety (Blockely, 1995).
Comparisons of high and low accident rate companies (Simonds and Shafai-Sahrai,
1977; Smith et al., 1978; Zohar, 1980; Chew, 1988; Nichols and Marcus, 1990)
show that organisations with a low accident record have a list of factors that appear
to be associated with good safety performance. Construction managers often view
safety as a cost that conflicts with production, take little direct interest in safety,and
rely on the site supervisor to manage safety; they neglect safety when they feel
strong programme and / or financial pressures (Leather, 1987). Other key factors
affecting safety management are the lack of the provision of safe working conditions,
safety training, effective control of site hazards by the main contractors, and specific
safety responsibilities for managers and workers (Jannady, 1996).
Safety management relates to actual practices, roles and functions associated with
remaining safe (Kirwan, 1998). It is therefore more than a ‘paper system’ of policies
and procedures. An audit of the official safety management system may begin and
end with an analysis of what is contained within the paperwork but it therefore says
little about how the system is being enacted in the field. Such an analysis identifies
what an organisation should be doing to protect its workers, the public, and the
environment from harm but it does not reveal what is actually happening at the work
site; whether people and the environment are being protected; and whether adverse
events are occurring (Mearns et al., 2003).
The development of a safety management system is seen as essential for the control
of risk. Research work by Lai et al. (1996) suggests that safety management should
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
14
be proactive rather than reactive, and that management should assess the adequacy
of its safety management effort through safety performance audits.
2.2. Safety Performance Management
To determine the existing safety level of any organisation, a safety performance
measurement is essential (Tarrants, 1970). Safety performance management
involves assessing and controlling risks, planning activities, detecting latent failures
and active failures, and monitoring and reviewing performance. Therefore success of
any action taken to control risks is assessed through appropriate active monitoring,
which may involve a range of techniques. This includes an examination of both
hardware (premises, plant and substances) and software (people, procedures and
systems), as well as individual behaviour (Lindsay, 1992). Failures of control are
assessed through reactive monitoring which requires the thorough investigation of
any injuries, ill health or incidents, with the potential to cause harm or loss. In both
proactive and reactive monitoring, the objectives are not only to determine the
immediate causes of sub-standard performance but, more importantly, to identify the
underlying causes and the implications for the design and operation of health and
safety management systems (Lindsay, 1992).
One of the conventional measures of safety performance relies primarily on some
form of accident statistics. Grimaldi (1970) claimed that accident statistics are
insensitive, and cannot reliably measure safety. One major disadvantage of
conventional safety measures is that they are retrospective, measuring unsafe
behaviour after it has occurred (Rockwell & Bhise, 1970; Tarrants, 1970). Thus it is
that the consequences of unsafe behaviour are measured, rather than the problems or
causes of unsafe behaviour. Ideally, a safety measurement technique would be
representative of what it is measuring, be replicable, uncomplicated and realistic
(Grimaldi, 1970). Glendon and McKenna (1995) identify fifteen (15) reasons why
accident data, or similar outcome data, are poor measures of safety performance.
The main reasons identified were: being insufficiently sensitive, of dubious accuracy,
retrospective, and ignorance or ignoring risk exposure.
Another measurement technique developed to provide positive performance
measurement of occupational health and safety is the observation of, and reporting
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
15
on, the individual behaviour, generally known as a behavioural sampling technique.
It follows that once behaviour has been measured, strategies to promote
modification can be developed. This method is based on the principle of random
sampling, and involves observing samples of worker behaviour at random and
evaluating whether the observed behaviour is safe (Tarrants, 1980).
Behavioural sampling has been widely used by several researchers implementing
behaviour modification safety programs ( Komaki et al., 1978; Chhokar & Wallin,
1984; Walker, 1995). Walker (1995) contend that behavioural observation data were
superior to accident statistics as they focus on unsafe behaviour prior to accidents
occurring. Unfortunately, behavioural sampling also has several disadvantages. For
example, sampling studies provide average results that disregard individual
differences in safe behaviour (Litherland, 1997).
Another technique that could be beneficial for safety measurement, is measuring
people’s attitudes towards safety (Schroder, 1970). Schroder found that the more
mature employee’s safety attitudes were, the more likely they would search for safer
environments, thus resulting in a decrease in unsafe behaviour. DeBobes (1986) also
highlighted the importance of safety attitudes in accident prevention and defined
attitude as a reflection of the predisposition to respond in a particular way.
Within many organisations there is increasing acceptance of the need to encourage
staff to: adopt a questioning attitude; search for ways to improve safety; constantly
be aware of what can go wrong; and feel personally accountable for safe operations
(Cooper, 1998). Ojanen et al, (1988) suggest that safety performance should be
measured on multiple levels (one of them being safety attitudes), in order to
determine the true safety level of an organisation. They suggest that measuring the
safety climate, or peoples’ attitudes towards safety, can indicate changes in
organisational safety behaviour, and thus can be a useful measure for evaluating
safety programs. Glendon and McKenna (1995) propose a process (triangulation),
which involves using at least two different measures to gauge the effectiveness of
safety programmes or safety performance. The key benefit in triangulation is that it
provides a more valid estimate of what is being measured. According to Lutness
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
16
(1987), a measure of the safety climate could be used to identify those areas of
safety that need more attention and improvement; it also detects different safety
trends within an organisation’s safety programme level and benchmarks for safety
levels of different organisations. Safety climate will be discussed, in the following
section as, one of the alternative measures of safety performance.
2.3. Safety Climate
Safety climate and culture are respectively considered subsets of organisational
climate and culture (Coyle et al., 1995), and both have received considerable
attention in the safety literature. The Advisory Committee on the Safety of Nuclear
Installations (ACSNI, 1993) has defined safety culture in a comprehensive manner.
In their view;
“Safety culture is the product of individual and group values, attitudes,
perceptions, competencies and patterns of behaviour that determine the
commitment to safety, and the life style and proficiency of an
organization’s health and safety management.” (p. 23).
Safety culture is important because it forms the context within which individual
safety attitudes develop and persist, and safety behaviours are promoted (Zohar,
1980). It is interesting to note that the concept of safety culture was developed in
response to major organisational accidents; however, it is now being more widely
applied to explain accidents at the individual level (Mearns et al., 2003). Safety
climate is regarded as a manifestation of safety culture in the behaviour and
expressed attitude of employees (Cox and Flin, 1998). Coyle et al. (1995) define
safety climate as an objective measurement of attitudes and perceptions towards
health and safety issues. Indeed safety climate, as with organisational climate, can be
regarded as the surface features of culture derived from a sample of employees’
attitudes and perceptions at a particular point in time (Flin et al., 2000). Neal and
Griffin (2000) found that safety climate operates as a mediating variable between
organisational climate and safety performance, which describes individual
perceptions of the value of safety within the work environment.
Safety climate has been researched for the last twenty five (25) years, dominantly in
four directions: (1) Designing psychometric measurement instruments and
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
17
ascertaining their underlying factor structures; (2) Developing and testing theoretical
models of safety climate to ascertain determinants of safety behaviour and accidents;
(3) Examining the relationship between safety climate perceptions and actual safety
performance; and (4) Exploring the links between safety climate and organizational
climate (Cooper and Phillips, 2004). As one of the objectives of this study is to
measure safety climate perceptions, and then examine its relationship with actual
safety behaviour of construction workers in Pakistan, this section and onwards
presents a detailed literature review with reference to directions 1 and 3 listed above.
Several safety climate questionnaires have been developed to determine the factors
that contribute to safety climate. Table 2.1 displays various safety climate studies,
ascertaining various underlying safety climate factor structures. The table does not
include other studies that dealt with safety climate factors in a generic form (i-e not
targeting any specific sector). However, all of these studies are discussed in detailed
below.
Zohar (1980) constructed the first measure and validated a 40-item measure of
organisational climate for safety on twenty (20) industrial samples in Israel. Zohar’s
measure of safety climate was developed by first undertaking a review of safety
literature with the goal of defining the characteristics and practices that
differentiated between companies that experienced a high rate of accidents and those
that experienced low rates. The underlying assumption was that the perception of
those dimensions within the plant forms the basis of the safety climate. Zohar
organized the questionnaire into eight (8) different dimensions based on the
literature review: (a) perceived management attitudes on safety; (b) perceived effects
of safe work practice on promotion; (c) perceived effects of safe conduct on social
status of individuals; (d) status of safety officer, (e) status of safety committee; (f)
perceived effectiveness of safety training; (g) perceived level of risk at the
workplace; and (h) the importance of safety training programs. After administrating
the questionnaire to 120-production workforce, the data were factor-analysed using
principal component analysis, resulting in eight (8) factors that largely overlapped
with the original dimensions. Based on the results, Zohar concluded that safety
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
18
climate is directly related to a company’s safety record, and could provide a means
for identifying the areas of safety within a company that can be improved.
Table 2.1 Safety Climate Factors Derived for Specific Sectors (as presented in
order of date of publication)
Study Sector (s), Country Factors Extracted
Zohar (1980)
Manufacturing Israel Safety training
Management attitudes
Risk in workplace
Promotion
Work pace
Status of security officer
Social status
Status of safety committee
Brown & Holmes (1986)
Manufacturing USA Management concern
Management activity
Risk perception
Dedobbeleer & Beland (1991)
Construction USA Management commitment
Work involvement
Cox & COX (1991)
Offshore Environment Europe
Personal scepticism
Individual responsibility
Safeness of work environment
Effectiveness of safety
arrangements
Personal immunity
Niskanen (1994)
Road Construction Finland Changes in job demand
Attitudes to safety in organization
Value of work
Safety as a part of productive work
Glendon, Stanton & Harrison
(1994)
Electricity UK Communication
Relationships
Incident investigation
Procedure development
Adequacy of procedures
Work pressure
Personal proactive equipment
Spares
Safety rules
Coyle, Sleeman & Adams
(1995)
Office, Nursing and Social
Workers Australia
ORGANISATION 1
Maintenance and management
issues
Company policy
Accountability
Training and management attitudes
Work environment
Policy/procedures
Personal authority
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
19
Table 2.1 Safety Climate Factors Derived for Specific Sectors ( as presented in
order of date of publication) (Cont’d)
Study Sector (s), Country Factors Extracted
Coyle, Sleeman & Adams
(1995)
Office, Nursing and Social
Workers Australia
ORGANISATION 2
Work environment
Personal Authority
Training and enforcement of policy
Williamson, Feyer, Cairns &
Bianotti (1997)
Manufacturing Australia Personal motivation
Positive safety practice
Risk justification
Fatalism
Optimism
Mearns, Flin, Gordon,&
Fleming (1998)
Offshore Oil & Gas UK Speaking up
Supervisors
Site management
Violations
Rules/regulations
Work clarity
Work pressure
Communication
Risk perception
Safety measures
Glendon & Litherland (2001) Road Construction and
Maintenance Australia
Communication and support
Relationships
Adequacy of procedures
Work pressure
Personal proactive equipment
Safety rules
Garavan & O’Brien (2001) Manufacturing Ireland
Employees willingness to
participate in safety management
Negative stereotype workers
Belief about employees who have
accidents
Management commitment
Riskiness in job
Belief in accidents proneness
Safety strategies
Proactive approaches to safety
Management responsibility for
safety
Strict adherence to rules
Employees safe conscious
Mohamed (2002) Construction Australia Management
Risk perception
Work pressure
Competence
Safety rules
Zohar’s model was replicated by Brown and Holmes (1986) and Coyle et al. (1995)
on different samples. Brown and Holmes (1986) at first used the same model as
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
20
Zohar’s on the manufacturing industry in the United States of America (USA), while
Coyle et al. (1995) added a number of questions that had been developed through
polling employees about safety issues at their subject facilities which were important
in those facilities. Both studies failed to replicate Zohar’s exact factor solution. The
reasons attributed to this difference was simply the differences within the
organisations themselves, and possibly to the differences in the cultures within
which the facilities were located (Zhoar, Israel; Brown & Holmes. USA; Coyle et al.,
Australia). Brown and Holmes (1986) therefore, in their next step, used existing
American data to refine the model utilizing an exploratory approach to factor
analysis model building. Based on their extracted factors for safety climate, they
were able to determine only three (3) principal factors: employee perception of how
concerned management was with employees’ well being; employee perception of
how active management was in responding to this concern; and employee physical
risk perception.
Dedobbeleer and Beland (1991) tested Brown and Holmes’s three-factor safety
climate model on construction workers. Their sample consisted of American
construction workers at nine (9) different construction sites. Using a maximum
likelihood factor solution with varimax rotation, they were able to replicate Brown
and Holmes’ solution; however, they went on to recommend that their own two-
factor solution was better. The reason given for the improvement was the different
industry sampled. The two (2) factors were interpreted as management commitment
to safety and worker’s involvement in safety. A study by Cox and Cox (1991) of
employees’ attitudes within an industrial organisation produced five (5) factors:
personal skepticism; individual responsibility; the safeness of the work
environment;and the effectiveness of arrangements for safety and personal immunity.
A three-factor model of safety climate was produced by Seppala (1992):
organisational responsibility for safety; workers’ concern about safety; and workers’
indifference towards safety. Niskanen (1994), in his study of road construction
workers, found two (2) separate four-factor solutions for workers and for supervisors.
Both included attitudes towards the safety of the organisation, changes in work
demands, value of work, and safety as part of productive work.
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
21
Using a safety climate questionnaire, Glendon et al. (1994) conducted research to
identify performance-shaping factors that would be generic to all organisations. This
study concluded with nine (9) factors: communication and support; adequacy of
procedures; work pressure; personal protective equipment; spares; relationships
safety rules; incident investigation; and development of procedures. Hofmann and
Stetzer (1996) used the Dedobbeleer and Beland (1991) and Zohar’s (1980) measure
of safety climate to examine safety climate at the different group level of the
organization. They demonstrated that safety climate was correlated with both
reported rates of unsafe behaviour and actual accidents. This finding provides some
critical evidence, indicating that safety climate has some criterion-related validity, a
relationship that had previously not been established.
Williamson et al. (1997) proposed a 67-item measure of safety climate. Factor
analysis on this study revealed five (5) factors: personal motivation for safe
behavior; positive safety practice; risk justification; fatalism; and optimism.
Flin et al. (2000), on the basis of the intensive reviews in their study, found the most
frequently measured factors were related to management, risk and safety
arrangements. Work pressure and competence were two other emerging, although
less frequently used, factors in this particular study. Glendon and Litherland (2001),
in their study on an Australian road construction organisation, investigated the
relationship between safety climate and safety performance by using a modified
version of Glendon et al.’s (1994) safety climate factor questionnaire. Their study
revealed the presence of six (6) factors as compared to the nine (9) factors of
Glendon et al., (1994). The factors were: communication and support; relationships;
adequacy of procedures; work pressure; personal proactive equipment; and safety
rules. This study could not establish the relationship between safety climate and
safety performance. The reasons attributed to such failure included; the safety
climate measure may tap a different aspect of safety than the behavioural measure of
safety. The safety climate questionnaire used in the research was a subjective self-
report measure, while behaviour observation is a more objective method. Different
measurement methods may reflect different aspects of safety.
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
22
Garavan and O’Brien (2001) found evidence of a positive relationship between
safety climate and safe behaviour. This study also showed strong effects of age,
gender and experience, but there were no effect of accident history variables on the
perception of safety climate.
Mohamed (2002), using structural equation modeling, studied the impact of safety
climate on safe work behaviour at nineteen (19) Australian construction sites. Five
(5) independent sets of safety climate factors (management, safety, risk, work
pressure and competence) were taken directly from the study of Flin et al. (2000).
Support was found in this study for the influence of management, safety and risk
systems on safety climate. Mohamed’s results showed a significant positive
relationship between safety climate and safe work behavior. He (2002) argued that
recent studies have investigated the impact of one or more elements of the five
factors on construction safety climate (Rowlinson & Lingard, 1996 ; Sawacha et al.,
1999; Mohamed. 1999), however individual relationship of these factors with safety
climate had not been measured specifically.
Mearns et al. (2003) conducted safety climate surveys on thirteen (13) offshore oil
and gas installations over two years time spans. The questionnaire surveys were
developed from the previous studies of Rundmo (1994, 1997) and Mearns et al.
(1997, 1998). Their 2003 study aimed to explore the association between safety
climate and safety performance, and between safety management practices and
safety performance. On the basis of their hypothesis formation, they found partial
support for the associations between safety climate, management practices and
performance.
A recent exploratory study on safety climate factors and their relationship with safe
behaviour, by Cooper and Phillips (2004), revealed the importance of safety training
as an important factor, predicting actual levels of safe behaviour. This study was the
extension of the old behavioural study of Cooper et al. (1994). The safety climate
survey was distributed to manufacturing employees. Twelve months after the first
safety climate survey, a second survey was conducted using the original survey
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
23
content. The results showed an empirical link between a limited set of safety climate
perceptions and actual safety behaviour.
2.3.1. Role of safety perceptions and attitudes in safety climate
In understanding a workplace’s safety climate, the perceptions and attitudes of the
workforce are important factors in assessing safety needs. Indeed safety solutions
may fail if these prevailing attitudes and perceptions are not taken into account
(Williamson et al., 1997). Attitudes are defined as “a psychological tendency that is
expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour”
(Eagly and Chaiken, 1993). Neal and Griffin (2004), in their study, found that
attitude measures exhibited greater variability than did perceptual measures, as
attitudes are influenced by individual differences in addition to environmental
factors. Thus, they argue that attitudes and perceptions of safety should be clearly
differentiated. In an earlier work Neal and Griffin (2000) defined safety perceptions
as “how workers view safety related policies, procedures and other workplace
attributes concerned with safety”. They proposed a framework for investigating
perceptions of safety within organisations. This framework differentiates between
individual perceptions of the work environment and the factors that may mediate
individual work performance from perceptions of the workplace. Zohar (1980)
conceptualised safety climate as a summary of the beliefs and perceptions of
employees about safety within the workplace. In its original conception it was
assumed that the safety climate acts as a frame of reference that guides behaviour,
such that employees develop “coherent sets of perceptions and expectations
regarding behaviour-outcome contingencies and behave accordingly” (Zohar, 1980,
p.96). Donald et al. (1991) revealed three (3) facets of safety attitudes: people or the
organisational role that make up the safety climate; attitudes, behaviour or aspects of
an individual’s safety behaviour; and safety activity or type of safety behaviour.
Neal and Griffin’s (2000) study considered only those perceptions related to safety
climate, viz. those involve individuals’ assessment of workplace attributes
concerned with safety. For example, employees’ views about management values
for safety, and personnel policies about safety, are clearly perceptions about values
and procedures within the wider work environment. So, in short, safety climate as a
concept describes the safety ethic within a workplace, which is reflected in workers’
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
24
beliefs about safety and is supposed to predict the way workers behave with respect
to safety within that workplace (Williamson et al., 1997).
2.3.2. Safety Climate and Safe Behaviour
Various studies have revealed that safety climate can predict safety-related outcomes,
such as accidents or injuries (Zohar, 1980; Brown and Holmes, 1986; Diaz and
Cabrera, 1997). Consequently safety climate is regarded as the manifestation of
safety culture in the behaviour and expressed attitude of the employee (Cox and Flin,
1998). Zohar (1980) was one of the first researchers to suggest a relationship
between safety climate and specific measures of safety performance. Indeed he
correlated safety climate scores with a ranking for safety practices and accident
prevention programs. From a comparison of these rankings with an overall safety
climate score, Zohar concluded that safety climate is related to the safety levels of
the organisation. Two years later Glennon (1982) compared safety climate scores
with measures of safety performance. Though he acknowledged the difficulties in
using accident-based measures, he found that safety climate appears to be related to
traditional measures of safety performance. Canter and Donald (1990) and Cox and
Cox (1991) also demonstrated, respectively, a correlation between safety climate
and behaviour
Tomas and Oliver (1995) found safety behaviour could be significantly predicted by
workers attitudes, co-workers’ response, hazards and supervisors’ response. Further,
Neal and Griffin (2000) found that safety climate influences safety performance.
More recently, Mohamed (2002) examined the relationship between safety climate
factors and the safety climate on Australian construction sites, as well as the
correlation between safety climate and workers’ safe behaviour. In this particular
study support was found, for the influence of management, safety and risk systems
on safety climate. A significant positive relationship between safety climate and safe
work behaviour was also found.
From the above overview, it is clear that a positive correlation exists between
workers’ safe behaviour and safety climate within construction site environments.
Additionally, construction workers’ attitudes towards safety appear to be influenced
by their perceptions of risk, management, safety rules and procedures.
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
25
2.3.3. Attitude and Behaviour
Research on attitudes, behaviour and safety management within the construction
industry has been undertaken by authors such as Levitt et al. (1976), Hinze (1978,
1979, 1981, 1988) and Dedobbeleer et al. (1987, 1991) in North America;
Andriessen (1978) and Laufer (1987) in Holland; Mattila and Hydoynmaan (1988)
and Laitinen and Ruohomaki (1994) in Finland; Lingard and Rowlinson (1994,
1997) and Siu et al. (2003) in Hong Kong; MacDonald et al. (2001) and Garavan
and O’Brien (2001) in Ireland; Mohamed (2002) in Australia; and Fang et al. (2004)
in China. Literature searches did not reveal any similar studies having been
undertaken in the context of developing countries in general, or in Pakistan in
particular.
A number of studies have been found showing that attitudes and behaviours are
significantly associated. Studies based on the theory of reasoned action and planned
behaviour (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) show a significant association between health
attitudes and risk behaviour. The theory of reasoned action was developed as a
means of explaining health-related beliefs, attitudes and behaviour. Health-related
beliefs are similar to safety beliefs in that they might affect one’s health. A major
assumption in this theory is that people behave sensibly; that is, they deliberately
employ information from their surroundings and consider the implications of their
actions.
Health-related attitudes may affect middle and top management decisions, which
also exert an influence on the conditions under which an employee’s individual
decision-making takes place. The attitudes may affect company priorities, as well as
company policy, about safety. Additionally, they may affect employees’ attitudes
and behaviour, both directly and indirectly (Rundmo and Hale, 2003).
2.3.4. Sub-Group Differences in Safety Climate
Some of the previous research on sub-group differences in safety climate, has
concluded that different organizations can differ on the same dimensions of safety
climate. Glennon (1982) analysed safety climate of seven different organizations
from six different industries. He concluded that not only each of the organizations
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
26
differed on each of the safety climate dimensions but even organizations within the
same industry showed different profiles of safety climate. Waring(1992) attributed
these sub-group differences in safety climate due to different daily work demands
and experiences which shape safety attitudes. Mason and Simpson (1995), and
Budworth (1997) examined perceived differences among the seniors and juniors
staff members’ attitude to safety climate. Budworth (1997) concluded that major
advantage of using a safety climate measure is that it can identify strengths and
weakness of different sub-groups within an organization, thus allowing for safety
management strategies to be developed specifically for each one. Glendon and
Litherland (2001) developed a six–factor safety climate structure of road
construction organization. One of the focuses of their study was to compare their
safety climate structure on two sub-groups in construction. Differences in the safety
climate of job sub-groups were found in two safety climate factors (i.e. safety
attitudes and safety rules). Recently, Lu and Shang (2005) in an empirical
investigation of safety climate in container terminal operators of Taiwan found
statistically significance differences in perceptions at the level of; Supervisors and
general employees, and junior and senior staff.
2.3.5. Measurement Method
The measurement of a safety climate may be used to supplement traditional
measures of safety as it overcomes many of the limitations of traditional safety
measurement, such as reporting biases and after-the-fact measurement (Litherland,
1997). The prime research method for investigating safety climate is the
questionnaire, typically completed by sufficient numbers of employees to allow
statistical analysis to reduce a large number of items to a small number of
dimensions (e.g. Williamson et al., 1997; Mearns et al., 1998). Many of the
researchers, listed in Table 2.1, have focused on developing and using surveys in
their respective studies. Lutness (1987) promoted safety climate surveys as reliable
tools when appropriately applied. Indeed Lutness claimed that safety climate
surveys will deliver information on employee’s perceptions of management’s
commitment to safety, detect areas for improvement and provide benchmarks for
different organisations. Ojanen et al. (1988) argued that any effort to improve safety
should be perceived as such by employees, and that the only way to measure the
safety climate is through conducting a safety climate survey. Cohen (1977)
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
27
suggested that the potential uses for safety climate questionnaires are considerable.
The perception of management commitment to safety can be measured by safety
climate questionnaires, allowing feedback to management about how workers
perceive management behaviour. Safety climate surveys are constituted with factors
that can also be termed as the determinants of the safety climate. A list of common
safety climate factors has yet to be uncovered. The reason for this non-uniformity in
safety climate factors is discussed in the following section.
2.3.6. Non-Uniformity in Safety Climate Factors
Coyle et al. (1995) administered a safety climate questionnaire to two (2) similar
organisations to investigate the uniformity of the safety climate factors in similar
organisations using the same questionnaire. They factor-analysed each
organisation’s questionnaire separately, but failed to find a consistent safety climate
factor structure. As a result, although they concluded that obtaining a universal
stability of safety climate factors is highly doubtful, they argued that failing to
produce a specific factor solution did not mean that the comparison of safety climate
factors were meaningless. Instead, they prostituted that the identification of different
factor sets for a given organisation was an effective means of determining where
attention might be most usefully focused. Flin et al. (2000) reviewed existing safety
climate measures in an effort to establish a common set of factors that can be
grouped into organisational, managerial and human themes. They concluded that,
although research into safety climate and safety culture has continued for more than
two decades, no universally accepted theory of climate or culture exits. Flin et al.
(2000) summarised the three (3) most common factors emerging from different
studies as: perceptions of management’s commitment to safety; perceptions of safety
management systems; and perceptions of risk. They also found a few less common
(but still important) factors, specifically work pressure consisting of workload, and
work pace, and competence relating to the general competence level of the workers.
One explanation for such inconsistencies in factor structure is the variety of
questionnaires, samples and methodologies used by different researchers; as a result
no consistency exits in the factor structure of the safety climate (Glendon and
Litherland, 2001). Although safety climate factors have been identified within
organisations, there is increasing evidence that a consistent safety climate factor
Chapter2
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
28
solution may not transfer from one organisation to another, especially as
organisations differ in their management style and safety regulations (Glendon and
Litherland, 2001). In all the studies reviewed on safety climate, the presence of
inconsistencies shows there is no universal set of safety climate factors; however
some similarities can be found between the different safety climate studies.
From the discussion in Section 2.3 on safety climate, it can be concluded that the
dimensions identified from studies of safety climate appear to be mostly related to
employees’ perceptions of the organisational characteristics and their own
competence, both of which impact upon safety. Schneider (1990) states that findings
on safety climate are in general consistent with definitions of climate constructs
found in the organisational literature, viz that individuals do attach meanings to, and
interpret the environments within which they work. Also the discussion in the sub-
sections on safety climate highlights the conclusion that the interpretation or the
meanings that an individual attaches to that safe or un-safe environment then
influences their behaviour. To further explain this reasoning, Hofmann and Stetzer
(1996), in their study, demonstrated that, where supervisors do not place emphasis
on safety issues, employees are less likely to perceive safety as an important issue.
Schneider’s (1990) remarks also support this view that a strong safety climate has
the potential to motivate employees to take greater ownership of, and responsibility
for, safety within the organization.
Based on the literature review for this PhD study, and in particular three recent
investigations by Flin et al. (2000), McDonald et al. (2001), and Mohamed (2002),
the delimitation is to investigate safety climate through; the perceptions of workers
for management’s commitment to safety; perceptions of safety management
systems; workers’ risk perception and competence; physical work environment;
safety supervisions and inspections; and relationships. The described safety climate
determinants will be used to develop the questionnaire survey used in this study for
workers’ attitudes and perceptions in Pakistan.
Chapter3
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
29
Chapter 3
National Culture
Having discussed safety management and performance, and then having identified
safety climate as key tool to measure safety performance, this chapter now focuses
on national culture and its importance in construction and management in general.
This chapter also reviews the different frameworks developed to measure national
culture, finally concentrating on the research undertaken by Hofstede (1980), and
discussing his identified cultural dimensions in detail.
The societies in which we grow up have their own sets of rules about the way we
behave and interact with others. These rules or norms are not written down, and
often we are not even conscious of them. Such norms or rules, which enable
societies to act accordingly with-in their own environment, are collectively called
“Culture” (Hope, 2004). As organisations are in many ways embedded in the larger
society in which they exist. Consequently workers working within those
organisations constitute part of the organisations; thus the workers will ultimately
exhibit the society’s attitude and behaviour as well. An organisation's safety culture
cannot flourish without interacting in harmony with the prevailing societal culture
(Meshkati, 1995). Indeed societal forces that dictate prevalent attitudes and
behaviours relating to safety within a given culture are fundamental to the study of
safety climate (Peckitt et al., 2002). Cultures are developed within countries as a
product of national patterns of early childhood and formative experiences and
education, language, religion and geography (Derr and Laurent, 1989). As culture is
a learned behaviour not genetically transformed (Islam, 2004), therefore studying
culture has become very important in understanding management and employee
styles of working.
Chapter3
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
30
A great deal of research has been undertaken in an attempt to understand just what
culture is and how it differs from region to region. The larger portion of available
literature on culture has addressed cross-cultural studies, rather than inter-cultural
investigations.
"Culture" is composed of shared assumptions, beliefs, norms and values that guide
people’s behaviour (Tayeb, 1994). Samovar et al. (1981) define culture as the
culmination of
“knowledge, experiences, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies,
religion, timing, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and
material objects and possessions acquired by a large group of people in the
course of generations through individual and group striving”.
For Hofstede (1980), culture is to humans collectively what personality is to an
individual. Personality is defined by Gilkey and Greenhalgh, (1991) as the patterns
of an individual's behaviour that reappear in a variety of situations. Therefore,
individual beliefs, values and behaviours are echoes of the habits and practices of
the cultural group from which an individual hails. The cultural literature argues that
behaviours differ from culture to culture because cultural groups hold divergent
values. Thus different societies have different and distinctive sets of values and
priorities within their respective cultures that give guidance on how their members
should proceed (Halender and Holborn, 1991). Britannica online (2003) attributes
cultural variation to usually:
• Physical habitants and resources;
• The range of possibilities inherent in various areas of activity such as
language, customs, the use of tools and the degree of social
development;: and
• Attitudes, values, ideals and beliefs of individuals, which are greatly
influenced by the culture in which they live.
Thus changes take place within and among cultures by:
• Means of ecological and environmental changes;
Chapter3
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
31
• Diffusion of advantageous cultural traits;
• Acculturation, which refers to the process of changes that result from
contact of societies with different cultural traditions; or
• The evolution of cultural elements over a period of time.
Expressions of culture include observable artefacts, patterns of behaviour, values
and assumptions (Rousseau, 1990). Macro aspects of culture (located at the societal
level) include language, laws, rituals and worldviews; while micro aspects, e.g.
motivation, trust and violations, are located at the individual or group level.
In summary then, national culture makes a unique contribution to understanding
management policies and practices (Evans, 1992). National culture is the software of
the mind (Hofstede, 1994), and it is deeply embedded in everyday life and fairly
resistant to change (Newman and Nollen, 1996).
3.1. National Culture and Construction Issues
National culture is increasingly capturing the attention of researchers as an issue of
concern in construction. He (1995) studied cultural influence from the risk
management point of view, identifying that the risk factor, at the national or regional
level in international construction projects, can be classified into three (3)
categories:
1. Political situation;
2. Economic and financial situation; and
3. Social environment
He (1995) concluded that social environment problems are most likely to be caused
by cultural differences, such as the language barrier, religious inconsistency,
differences in traditions, and so on. Moreover, He (1995) points out that these risk
factors are beyond the control of companies, but that they can be managed, and are
comparatively predictable and measurable by adequate statistics.
Baba (1996) found that, in transferring and utilizing the systems and methods
developed in the field of construction management in some advanced Western
Chapter3
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
32
countries to suit Asian countries’ needs, strong resistance and conflicts come mainly
from the differences in cultures. These differences are classified into three (3)
categories:
1. Traditional organisation structure;
2. Managerial differences; and
3. Differences in fundamental concept and philosophy upon which
contracts and laws are based.
Ngowi (1997) reports on a study undertaken in Botswana to determine the
influence of cultural background on construction project team members with
reference to innovation in the adopted procurement systems. It was found that
for the projects in which team members were from different cultural
backgrounds, there were inhibitions to innovation compared with these in
which team members had similar cultural backgrounds. Ngowi concludes that
the cultural background of project team members should be taken into
consideration in project management to create a conducive environment for
innovation.
Chan (1997) also demonstrated cross-cultural influence on construction project
management through the identification of cultural influence on the resolution of
foreign-related construction disputes in China. Chan argues that the cause of these
disputes is closely related to the culture of a society, and that the different methods
for resolving disputes are also social phenomena closely associated with a society’s
unique culture.
Ngowi (2000) later attempted to highlight the influence of national culture and
organisational culture on Total Quality Management (TQM) application within the
construction industry in Botswana. In this study, he aimed to determine the outcome
of implementing TQM in a workplace that does not share a cultural base. A survey
of 100 construction firms in Botswana found that, although the values embedded in
TQM could be adopted within the organisation into which it is implemented, the
cultural context of the greater society resisted some of the values. It was concluded
Chapter3
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
33
that, for TQM to be successful in a particular cultural setting, it must take on some
of the host culture values.
Low and Shi (2002), in a cross-cultural exploratory study, examined what
constituted Singaporean and Chinese culture with particular reference to
construction firms. Their study was based on the four dimensions of national culture
established by Hofstede (1980) to explore the cross-cultural influences brought
about by the two cultures within the context of construction projects in China.
Similarly Tijhaus (2002) highlighted the impact of cultural issues when transferring
western technologies abroad. The failure to consider local cultural issues, such as
problematic infrastructure, lack of training opportunities, local conflicts and other
matters, can cause projects to fail. Therefore, decisions made by keeping the national
culture in mind during the procurement process impacts significantly upon the
success of construction projects. Phua (2002) explored the reasons for the general
lack of cooperation within the Hong Kong construction industry. He found an
impact from collectivism and individualism on projects’ participants’ cooperative
behaviour in the Hong Kong construction industry.
3.2. National Culture and Management
The IAEA (1998) suggests that understanding the impact of societal culture upon
safety culture allows identification of most of the antecedents of safety related
attitudes and behaviours. The different studies on cultural differences also suggest
that management controls that are effective in one country may be ineffective or
even dysfunctional in another. Such cross-cultural differences can arise both
internally (by affecting the work-related behaviour of a given set of employees) and
at the interface between the organisation and the external labour market (Chow et al.,
1994). Preferred management styles have their roots in (and in turn are influenced
by) national culture. A large number of empirical studies have examined the
relationships between national culture and various aspects of management, which
include planning and strategic decision-making. Meshkati (1995) has identified risk
perception, motivation, workgroup dynamics, and attitudes to work, technology,
hierarchy, time and religion as important cultural factors, which have a strong
impact on safety culture. Lagrosen (2002), in his study on exploring the impact of
Chapter3
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
34
culture on quality management, and using Hofstede’s (1994) model, found that
uncertainty avoidance and individualism-collectivism are the dimensions that mainly
affect the implementation of quality management.
Low (1995, 1997) in his two (2) studies have analysed some important cultural
phenomena and concluded that an understanding of these phenomena can help
international corporations from the West market their services more effectively as
well as enhance their ability to manage adversities.
3.3. Dimensions of National Culture
To study the cultural influence on societies, one needs typologies (Schein, 1985) or
dimensions (Hofstede, 1980) that can be used to analyse the behaviours, actions and
values of the members of a society (Pheng and Yuquan, 2002).
Hall (1959, 1976) drew attention to the difference between the nature of “low
context” and “high context” societies. Context refers to ‘the information that
surrounds an event’, and is inextricably bound up with the meaning of that event and
conceptions of time (Hall and Hall, 1990). “Low context people”, such as
Americans, Germans, Swiss, Scandinavians and other Northern Europeans,
appreciate explicit, clear, written forms of communication, as provided by
computers, books, reports and letters. In contrast, “high context people”, such as
Asians, Arabs and Southern Europeans, divulge less information officially in written
form. In relation to perceptions of time, low context people are generally
“monochronic” in that they are used to doing one activity at a time and dislike
interruptions, whereas high context peoples are “polychronic”, i.e. more flexible or
elastic in the management of work or that of others (Hall and Hall,1990).
Hofstede’s (1980) extensive research on culture has helped conceptualise one of the
most popular theories of cultural types, as evidenced by well over 1000 citations
from Cultural Consequences reported in the Social Science Citation since 1980. His
approach to culture initially identified four underlying value dimensions: (1)
individualism vs. collectivism; (2) large vs. small power distance; (3) strong vs.
weak uncertainty avoidance; and (4) masculinity vs. femininity. These dimensions
Chapter3
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
35
group together a number of social phenomena, which occur in combination.
Hofstede (1994) in a later study adds a fifth dimension to his analysis of differences
among societal cultures, namely that of a long-term orientation Vs a short-term
orientation to life.
From a different perspective, Schein (1985) identifies five (5) basic assumptions
around which cultural paradigms form, namely: (1) relationship to nature; (2) truth
and reality; (3) human nature; (4) human activity; and (5) human relationships.
Another framework for the understanding of culture was developed by Hampden-
Turner and Trompenaars (1993). It was based on 50,000 cases of managers from
multinational and international corporations representing more than 100 countries,
and identifies seven cultural dimensions, namely :(1) universalism vs. particularism;
(2) analysing vs. integrating; (3) individualism vs. collectivism; (4) inner-
directedness vs. outer- directedness; (5) time sequential vs. time synchronising; (6)
achieved status vs. subscribed status; and (7) equality vs. hierarchy.
In this approach, cultures differ in the specific solutions they choose for problems.
Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (1993) cultural dimensions combine many
aspects of Hofstede's (1980) categories, but the correspondence between the two is
not always perfect (Peckett et al., 2002).
House et al. (2001) designed GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational
Behaviour Effectiveness), a research project to examine the interrelationships
between societal culture, organisational culture and leadership styles. The meta-goal
of Globe was to develop an empirically-based theory to describe, understand and
predict the impact of cultural variables on leadership styles and organisational
process and the effectiveness of these processes. The GLOBE project studied nine
(9) cultural dimensions, adopted on the basis of a review of the literature relevant to
the measurement of culture from previous large-sample studies, the existing cross-
culture theory. The GLOBE’s cultural dimensions are: (1) uncertainty avoidance; (2)
power distance; (3) collectivism I: societal collectivism; (4) collectivism II: in-group
Chapter3
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
36
collectivism; (5) gender egalitarianism; (6) assertiveness ;(7) future orientation; (8)
performance orientation; and (9) human orientation.
The first six (6) cultural dimensions had their origins in the dimensions of culture
identified by Hofstede (1980). The first three dimensions were intended to reflect the
same constructs as Hofstede’s dimensions labeled Uncertainty Avoidance, Power
Distance, and Individualism. The Collectivism-I dimension measured societal
emphasis on collectivism, with low scores reflecting individualistic emphasis, and
high scores reflecting collectivistic emphasis by means of laws, social programs or
institutional practices. The Collectivism-II scale measured group (family and/or
organisation) collectivism – pride in and loyalty to family and/or organisation and
family and/or organisational cohesiveness. In lieu of Hofstede’s Masculinity
dimension, they developed two dimensions labeled Gender Egalitarianism and
Assertiveness.
Future Orientation was derived from Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s (1961) Past,
Present, Future Orientation dimension, which focused on the temporal mode of a
society. Performance Orientation was derived from McClelland’s work on need for
achievement. The Humane Orientation dimension had its roots in Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck’s (1961) work that Human Nature is Good vs. Human Nature is Bad, as
well as Putnam’s (1993) work on the Civic Society and McClelland’s (1985)
conceptualisation of the affiliative motive.
For this research study, the relevant delimitation is that the culture of Pakistan will
be seen only from the framework of Hofstede (1994) and the cultural dimensions
Hofstede has formulated. As mentioned above, while many other scholars have
proposed alternative frameworks, the work of Hofstede was found to be most
comprehensive and most suitable to serve as a basis for this study. The reason for
this is that Hofstede’s framework is the most referred to and well validated. It is
worth noting that Hofstede’s survey respondents were doing similar work in the
same company; thus many intervening variables had been controlled. The only
significant difference was their nationality. Therefore, Hofstede’s study could claim
the differences in attitudes and values were due to cultural differences (Islam, 2004)
Chapter3
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
37
Based on a survey of 116,000 individuals from 72 countries, most of whom were
employees of a single global corporation, Hofstede (1980), after applying factor-
analysis to the survey data sets, identified four (4) work-related cultural dimensions
along which the countries differed. He also suggested specific relationships among
these cultural dimensions and individuals, with preferences for, and reactions to
elements of a management control system. Hofstede’s dimensions (power distance,
uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and masculinity) are briefly discussed below.
Large vs. Small power distance (PDI)
The dimension of power distance reflects the degree of inequality in which power is
distributed among the members of institutions, organisations and societies. For large
power distance countries, power is distributed unequally among the members, with
more powerful persons at the top of those organisations. In such organisations
centralised decisions are made in an autocratic manner. On the other hand, for small
power distance countries, power are shared much more equally among the members
and the decision-makers by acting interdependently, thus resulting in the decisions
being made in a consultative manner.
Strong vs. Weak uncertainty avoidance (UAI)
The dimension of uncertainty avoidance relates to the mental programming of
people in terms of the manner in which they respond to ambiguous and uncertain
future situations. People in a weak uncertainty avoidance culture have a greater
acceptance, tolerance, and feeling of security, despite facing a possibly uncertain
future. In contrast, people from a strong uncertainty avoidance culture tend to feel
threatened by a possibly uncertain future, engaging in coping behaviours to reduce
their levels of anxiety and stress.
Individualism vs. Collectivism (IND)
The IND is the extent to which a society believes people should take care of
themselves and remain essentially independent from any group. In cultures
characterised by high individualism, people believe individuals should take care of
themselves. Thus, people have personal and family lives separate from their work;
Chapter3
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
38
have opinions independent of the groups to which they belong; and believe
management has a role of co-ordinating individual efforts to achieve collective goals.
In cultures characterised by low individualism, people regard their relationship to
their firm as being similar to a family link; are trained to know and adhere to the
“firm way”; have opinions that tend to be consistent with those of others within their
firm or group; expect what they mean will be understood with little explanation; and
place a high priority on the maintenance of harmonious group working relationships.
Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS)
This dimension reflects the extent to which the “masculine” ego’s values of
assertiveness, money and material prevail (rather than the “feminine” values of
nurturing, quality of life and people). In cultures characterized by high masculinity,
gender roles are distinct and highly defined by boundaries and distinctions, as well
as assertive and competitive behaviour being emphasised. Masculine stereotypes are
clearly preferred and valued highly. Fighting, arbitrary behaviour and withdrawal
most often resolve disputes. In cultures characterised as low masculinity, gender role
distinctions overlap. Boundaries and distinctions are de-emphasised, while socially
and environmentally sensitive behaviour is emphasized. “Feminine” behaviour is
valued throughout the culture, with disputes preferably being resolved by
compromise and negotiation.
One of the attractions of Hofstede’s work is that he used his survey data to locate
countries along each of the four dimensions, thereby allowing for relatively
straightforward comparisons. He has produced actual figures on the dimensions for
many countries including, Pakistan. Figure 3.1 demonstrates how mapping the
culture traits and their associated scores on Hofstede’s scale differs between
Pakistan and Australia. It is strongly believed by the author that the in-depth
knowledge of these four cultural dimensions, in relation to Pakistan, can help to
identify and explain both weak and strong aspects of local construction safety
climate, and its influence on both workers’ behaviour and management styles.
Therefore the current research is unique in drawing evidence of the national cultural
influence on construction workers’ attitudes, perceptions and behaviours and
managers’ safety practices in Pakistan. This aspect has so far not been studied. It is
Chapter3
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
39
therefore intended that this research study develop a national culture questionnaire,
so as to: (a) explore the four defined dimensions of national culture with particular
reference to Pakistan’s construction industry; and (b) study the influence of those
national cultural dimensions on the behaviour of construction workers and
management safety practices. The development of a national culture questionnaire in
the context of construction safety, for construction workers and managers, is
discussed in Chapter Five.
20
40
60
80
100
20
40
60
80
100
20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100
UAI
PDI
MAS
IND
: Australia
: Pakistan
0
Figure 3.1 Mapping Pakistan and Australia on Hofstede’s Dimensions
(Adapted from Hofstede, 1980)
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
40
Chapter 4
Pakistan
Chapter Four, unlike the previous chapters, provides a general overview on Pakistan
so as to provide the reader with a broader knowledge of the country and its salient
features. This overview includes; Pakistan’s geographical location, state of economy,
its national cultural trends, factors that influence national culture, and prevailing
construction safety and health conditions.
4.1. Overview
Pakistan (figure 4.1), located in Southeast Asia, is a developing country that was
born on 14 August 1947, as a result of the partition of British India. The total area of
Pakistan is 803,940 sq. kilometres, which comprises 778,720 sq. kilometres of land
and 25220 sq. kilometres, of water (Government of Pakistan, 2005). Pakistan shares
an eastern border with India and a north-eastern border with China. Iran makes up
the country’s southwest border, while Afghanistan runs along its western and
northern edge. The Arabian Sea is Pakistan’s southern boundary, with 1,064
kilometres of coastline. Refer to figure 4.1 for the geographical map of Pakistan
The total population of Pakistan is 140.5 million, with a male/female ratio of 52.50:
47.50. At an increment of 2.1 per cent per annum, Pakistan has one of the world’s
highest population growth rates. Two-thirds of the population lives in villages, with
agriculture as the main source of livelihood. The density population per square
kilometre is 156 persons. The literacy rate is estimated to be 36.8 per cent. Per
capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is around 2,146 US dollars (Central
Investigation Agency, 2005). According to government statistics, the labour force in
Pakistan was estimated at 39.4 million in 2003; out of which the industrial labour
force constituted 6,005,487; while agriculture represented 17,518,204 and service
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
41
10,586,309. About 67 per cent of the total urban population of the country lives in
twenty-eight (28) cities with populations of 100,000 or more, further 57 per cent of
the total urban population lives in twelve (12) cities with populations of 200,000 or
more.
Figure 4.1 Map of Pakistan
Pakistan is a federation of: four (4) provinces (Punjab, Sindh, North-West Frontier
Province,and Balochistan); the Federal Capital Area of Islamabad; and some
federally administered regions. Of the four provinces, Punjab,- with 25.8 per cent of
the land area of the country, has 56.5 per cent of the total population; Sindh, with
17.7 per cent of the land area, has 22.6 per cent; North West Frontier Province
(NWFP), (including federally administrated tribal areas (FATA)), with 12.8 per cent
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
42
of land area, has 15.7 per cent; and Balochistan, with 43.6 per cent of land area, has
5.1 per cent. Punjab is thus the most densely populated province (240 persons per sq
km), followed by Sindh and the NWFP. Balochistan is the least populated province,
with 19 persons per square kilometre. Administratively, the provinces are made up
of divisions, which are further divided into districts of small sub-divisions.
The government of Pakistan is a bicameral system of government, with a President
as head of state and a Prime Minister elected by members of the National Assembly.
According to the constitution of Pakistan elections are to be held every five (5) years,
with every graduate Pakistani over the age of 21 entitled to elect representatives
from each constituency. Elections are also held concurrently to elect members of the
four (4) Provincial Assemblies for each province. A higher chamber, the Senate, is
then elected on the basis of representation from each Provincial Assembly. Together
the electoral college of the National and Provincial Assemblies elect the President of
Pakistan, who has extensive powers due to amendments to the 1973 Constitution of
Pakistan. Local government plays no role in the elections of either the Senate or the
President, nor within the political and electoral structure of Pakistan.
The country’s political and electoral system is loosely based on the principles from
the British Westminster model, which is prevalent in most countries that have been
colonies of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. A thriving multi-party system
exists at both the national and provincial levels in Pakistan. Hundreds of parties exist
within the political arena, often with scores of candidates contesting one assembly
seat.
Pakistan is a multi-ethnic and multi-linguistic state; it has six (6) ethnic groups and
eight (8) regional languages. Urdu, the national language, is the language of
instruction in secondary schools. English is widely used in commerce and business,
and continues to be the official language of Pakistan. It is also the language of
instruction at the higher levels of education, particularly for the science and
technology fields CIA. 2005).
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
43
The economy gathered greater momentum during the fiscal year 2003-2004. Indeed
the acceleration in growth was accompanied by a sharp pick-up in industrial
production, a strong upsurge in investment, and a further strengthening of the
external balance of payments; such were the hallmarks of that year's performance.
Real GDP growth also surpassed the target (5.3 %) with a headline number of 6.4
percent, compared with the previous year’s (2002-2003) 5.1 percent rate. This
buoyant growth was aided by a 13.1 percent and 5.2 percent growth in the
manufacturing and services sectors, respectively. Another star performer was the
construction sector, registering a growth rate of 7.9 percent against a target of 5.4
percent. Construction and housing has been identified as one of the major drivers of
growth within Pakistan; the government has taken various budgetary and non-
budgetary measures to boost this sector, which has responded positively, despite
higher input prices (Government of Pakistan 2005).
The land of Pakistan is of much splendour. The scenery changes northward from
coastal beaches, lagoons and mangrove swamps in the south to sandy deserts,
desolate plateaux, fertile plains, dissected upland in the middle, and high mountains
with beautiful valleys, snow-covered peaks and eternal glaciers in the north. The
variety of landscapes divide Pakistan into six (6) major regions: the North High
Mountainous Region; the Western Low Mountainous Region; the Balochistan
Plateau; the Potohar Uplands; the Punjab; and the Sindh Plains.
4.2. Pakistani Culture
Despite its unique cultural set-up, a large and capable workforce, liberal
privatisation and investment policies, and strategic geographical importance
(gateway to Central Asian Republics), Pakistan has been largely ignored in previous
management research (Khilji, 2001). Very little literature is available addressing
either Pakistan or the different aspects of its culture, in practice. Published works
identified by the author focused on Human Resource Management (Khilji, 2001,
2002, 2003, 2004), administration and leadership style (Islam, 2004), and
governance and civil society (Malik, 1994).
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
44
Pakistani culture, like that of many developing countries, has been characterised as
collectivist, inclined towards moderate masculinity, high uncertainty avoidance and
high power distance (Hofstede, 1980,1994; Khilji, 2001). These characteristics
imply that, within such a culture, there is a general unquestioning respect for
authority, people integrate in the form of cohesive groups, and are emotional. Indeed
Pakistanis have been found to score halfway along the masculinity index (Hofstede,
1980,1991), which suggests that people exhibit the tougher qualities usually
associated with men (being aggressive, ambitious and competitive) on the one hand,
and feminine qualities (modesty and caring for others) on the other. The evidence
suggests the inclination is definitely towards masculine qualities (Khilji, 1999).
Research has proven that social institutions (such as family, education and
surrounding environments) as well as many other factors, influence individuals from
early childhood (Khilji, 1999). In her study, Khilji (1999) describes Pakistani culture
as a mixture of religion (Islam), origins (Indian), and inheritance (British), with
some American influence. She claims the described characteristics of Pakistani
culture in Hofstede’s study are based on a mixture of such ingredients. The
following is a brief overview of all these factors, as studied by Khilji (1999), which
contribute to the creation of the Pakistani national culture.
Religion: Islam
As Pakistan emerged from a belief in the ideology of Islam; thus the assumption
about the influence of religion on the Pakistani culture appears to be prominent.
Tayeb (1997) in his study on HRM in organisations, argues that, within a
predominantly Muslim country, Islam, through national culture, influences
organisations. Arguing further, he claims that, in those countries, HRM (being a part
of organisational culture) would also be influenced. Khilji’s (1999) study showed
that this was not in the case in Pakistan. She found only a limited influence of
religion on the composition of Pakistani national culture. She reinforced the findings
of Ahmed (1996), that the influence of religion within Pakistani organizations is
limited to its basic or outer shell. Examples are: allocation of prayer rooms in all
working areas, so that employees can say their prayers during office hours; extended
lunch break hours or even shorter office hour times on Fridays so as to facilitate the
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
45
saying of Friday prayers. Additionally, shorter hours are allowed during the holy
month of Ramadan (the month of fasting) (Ahmed, 1996; Malik, 1996). Further,
Latifi (1997, as cited in Khilji, 2003)), concluded that Pakistan (as in other Muslim
countries) has become localised due to the overshadowing impact of other influences.
Therefore, it can be argued here that religion has not been such an influential factor
in shaping the norms of behaviour for society in general, as the people have adopted
religion to a certain limit; that is religion is part of their routine life, rather than
being embedded in their life style and their beliefs.
Origin: Indian
Pakistan, having formally been a part of the Indian sub-continent, and once
dominated by Indian culture, still exhibits prevailing customs and traditions that
form the infrastructure of its society, which can be traced back to Indian origins. The
influence of the Indian origin can easily be detected in the general lifestyle of
Pakistanis, whether rich, poor, old or young. Examples which include the “family–
centred” nature of social setup; obligations to family, include both financial and
ritual practices, roles expected of women, and the manner in which children are
raised, especially the males. Children are expected to always be obedient to their
elders (parents, teachers and significant others). Lyon (1993) refers to such a pattern
of dependence (upon elders) as pervading all human contact, with the people having
a strong need for dependence/security. Islam has been successful in influencing
some of the inherited Indian prevailing culture, like the elimination of the caste
system; and the forming of family-like ties even with those who are not biological
relatives; however, it is still felt that Islam, has not been fully absorbed into the
many aspects of daily life.
Inheritance (British Rule)
Being a colony under British rule for almost a century, the sub-continent embraced
some of the predominant cultural effects. Some can still be observed in different
aspects of people’s day-to-day lives. The creation of an elite class in society, notably
the feudal and civil servants, is the main example of such influence. The elite class
exemplifies money, power and status. Meanwhile, the non-elite struggle for the
fundamental rights of justice and democracy (Khilji, 2004). As with their
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
46
counterparts in the colonial era, law and law-enforcing bodies also protect the
affluent and the powerful. Such inequality causes frustration among the general
public, who hold that there are no checks and balances to curb the power of the
influential (Hussain, 1999). Over the past few decades, the relatively small, educated
elite has increasingly been displaced by an educated middle class, but without,
bringing an essential change of attitude (Khilji, 2003).
American Influence
Since the creation of Pakistan, the United States of America has been perceived as
the most significant foreign player in its politics, and probably the most vital
element in the formation of various economic and foreign policies (Hussain and
Hussain, 1993). In particular, following the Russian invasion of Afghanistan in the
1980s, cultural influences peaked as Americans came to Pakistan and Pakistanis also
found the way to America. (Khilji, 1999). Such exposure brought many American
ideas into some of the more limited aspects of life, like the schooling systems and
organisational management systems. Zakiria (1994, as cited in Khilji, 2003) and
Khilji (1999) observed that Pakistani managers now preferred the American style of
management, because of its more progressive and more result-focused approach
over the old, slow, and bureaucratic systems Pakistan seems to have inherited from
the British. However, American cultural influences did not have a great effect on the
overall general public lifestyle and behaviour. Though always impressed by
American style talking, clothes, and movies, their own religious restrictions meant
that it was not embraced completely.
It is clear from the above discussion that four (4) different ingredient factors
influence (to differing degrees) how Pakistanis shape their national culture. These
ingredient factors both complement, and or conflict with, each other. Khilji (2003)
observes that the first two factors, religion and origin (i.e. social set up) are
embedded to a certain level of emotional experiences of childhood, education and
upbringing, and permeate in a pervasive subconscious manner; whereas the third and
fourth factors contribute as an influencing factor only when Pakistani people acquire
knowledge and make informed choices.
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
47
4.3. Pakistani Construction Industry
The construction and engineering service sector is one of the most neglected sectors
within Pakistan, although Pakistan’s construction industry contributes greatly
towards the GDP and employs about 9 % of the total labour force (Labour Force
Survey Report-Government of Pakistan, 2001). Table 4.1, presents a spot analysis of
the construction industry of Pakistan showing the total number of construction
companies; share in GDP; and contribution to employment.
Table 4.1 Spot analysis of the construction sector in Pakistan (Board of
Investment, Government of Pakistan, http://www.pakboi.gov.pk)
The industry consists of public and private sector clients, design, management, and
construction specialists. Many foreign-originated construction firms (such as
Chinese, Singaporean, American, Australian, and Italian) also operate within the
country on various projects ranging from large infrastructure projects to local road
projects.
Spot Analysis of the Construction Sector in Pakistani
Category
Number of
Company
Registered
Project Cost Limit
C-1 242 No Limit
C-2 127 Up to Rs.100 Million
C-3 900 Up to Rs.50 Million
C-4 769 Up to Rs.20 Million
Contribution to Employment
Total Employed Labour Force 38.9 million.
Construction Sector Share in
Total Employment
3.50 million (8.97%)
Construction Share in GDP 3.5 %
Foreign Direct Investment
(July-April 1999-2000.)
US$ 16.1 million
Import of Construction
Machinery
US$ 67.9 million
Average turnover per year Rs 250 billion
1 US $ = 61 Pak Rs (Approx.)
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
48
As mentioned earlier, this industry is more labour intensive, with moderately less
use of mechansation. Therefore, compared with other industries in Pakistan (like the
manufacturing industry) this industry is labelled as being backward because of its
relative lack of use of the latest advances in technology, management styles and
procedures. Indeed it invests very meagre amounts in research and development,
which hinders the industry’s ability to adopt new technology and processes.
Despite the use of less mechanisation, Pakistan’s construction industry is still
characterised as pressured and adversarial, with long working hours comprising
underpaid jobs. Further, construction projects in Pakistan generally: run over time
and over cost schedules; do not necessarily meet user expectations; and often require
remedial works due to construction defects. Usually finance, time schedules and
standards of work are the main conflicting issues, leading to project disputes and
thus litigation.
Most clients demand high speed, high quality work at the lowest cost. Time and
financial pressures often mean that the client does not give sufficient time for
preparation of the design. Costs are affected by the standard of workmanship
specified, the complexity of the work and the contract conditions.
The working pattern of the local construction industry has the same conventions as
other construction industries elsewhere. Consultants (architects and engineers)
usually work directly for the client, and their appointment is made well before that
of the contractors. These consultants help the client to finalise the design and
construction cost, and to choose the appropriate type of contract.
As with other developing countries, the fact that the government is a major public
sector client has a profound effect on Pakistan’s construction industry, both directly
and indirectly.
Pakistan’s construction industry consists of around 24,000 construction companies,
registered with the Pakistan Engineering Council (PEC), a statuary body, constituted
by the government of Pakistan. Its major functions include:
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
49
• Registration of professional engineers; and
• Registration of construction and consulting firms for public and private
contracts.
In Pakistan, it is a legal obligation for every construction and consultant firm to
obtain a practicing licence, which must be renewed annually. This licence allows the
firms to bid for all types of public and private projects according to bid limitation
allocations (refer to Table 4.1).
Large contracting organisations registered in Category C1 (Table 4.1), usually
dominate the market in terms of the value of the contracts won. Most of the time, the
construction work is then sub-contracted, to facilitate completion of the project.
Small contracting organisations are mostly interested in securing contracts for the
maintenance and repair of government buildings, roads and some small-scale
building projects, and always prefer to restrict their bidding for small portions of
either large-scale local or internationally-funded projects. This approach can be
attributed to a shortage of resources, such as finance, and technical or non-technical
staff.
Pakistan’s construction industry’s workforce is male dominated; has a very low
literacy rate (limited to some reading and writing abilities); has low pay with long
working hours; and indulges in dangerous manual work. These workers are of
transitory nature, usually migrating from rural areas. Their employment within the
construction industry is often for the short-term, intermittent, and generally involves
living away from home for months on end. Females have much less or limited
involvement in construction works. Interestingly some cities in Pakistan are famous
for their workforce in procuring speciality work on projects. For example, the
general un-skilled labour from the northern part of the country is always considered
a reliable workforce for scaffolding work and also for other tough jobs on
construction sites. The workforce from another town “Mianwali” usually dominates
the surveying and levelling works in mega projects. Dominancy of kinship or family
systems in workers trades is another worth mentioning factor here. Thus workers
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
50
usually prefer to work within family or tribe systems, as they feel more comfortable
and confident in such environments.
4.4. Construction Safety Practices in Pakistan
The regulatory environment in Pakistan, which comprises safety laws, regulations,
procedures, and policies, has prime importance in safety management systems.
Evidence has been found, in many research studies that workers’ perceptions relate
to a reduction in accident rates within an existing regulatory environment (Gun,
1993; Cox and Cheyne, 2000).
Nevertheless, Pakistan’s construction industry lacks formal safety management
systems and effective health and safety regulations. Though the industry contributes
3.5 % towards GDP and holds 9 % share of the total labour force (refer to Table 4.1),
most of labour laws still do not apply to this sector. As a consequence construction
workers are not provided with the protection available to industrial workers. The
absence or deficiency of such a set of safety regulations adversely affects the
enforcement of safety on the job site, thereby resulting in more vulnerable
conditions in the Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) area for workers.
Construction and safety laws are also fragmented; no single comprehensive piece of
legislation dealing with occupational safety and health exists. The methods for the
setting of standards, codes of practice and occupational exposure limits, have not
been identified.
The main law governing Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) is the Factories Act
1934. The Hazardous Occupation Rules of 1978 regulate certain occupations as
hazardous, and contain special provisions to regulate the working conditions in those
occupations. Unfortunately, construction has never been added to such laws or
provisions. Other laws dealing with OHS are:
• The Mines Act 1923;
• Workmen’s Compensation Act 1923;
• Dock Labourer Act 1934;
• Social Security Ordinance 1965; and
• Shop and Establishment Ordinance 1969.
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
51
Regrettably, the health and safety measures prescribed in most of the above laws
have not kept pace with the rapidly changing times, conditions or industry
requirements. Many of the sectors, with serious OHS hazards (including those with
most of the workers) are not covered by these laws, even though they contain very
few technical standards. These laws urgently require revision and updating (Awan,
2001).
Additionally, due to the lack of enforcement of labour laws, the majority of
construction accidents are not reported to the Labour Department. Usually only
those incidents that result in fatalities, or gain media interest, are reported. It
therefore seems unlikely that available occupational health and safety data would be
reliable. Thus, without the proper information on the basic causes of accidents and
injuries, it is difficult to initiate effective measures to reduce the frequencies of
accidents, or to improve the overall safety standards within the construction industry
of Pakistan. Further, as the majority of construction companies belong to the private
sector, and due to limited financial and technical resources, poor working conditions
are quite common. From the interviews held with site engineers and foremen in this
study, it was clear that existing training techniques are infrequent and of a poor
quality.
From the site visits, the author observed that generally, on-site personnel (and, at
management level, clients and contractor organisations) are not too concerned with
safety requirements. Smaller contractors rarely pay attention to basic occupational
health and safety requirements, safety training or site safety induction talks. Site
inspection services are not of an adequate standard to recognise and evaluate
occupational hazards.
Large multinational construction organisations based in Pakistan, which are usually
involved in the construction of mega-projects, and form joint ventures with foreign /
local firms, have compiled their own site safety manuals. In these manuals some of
the standards have been adapted from different safety manuals provided by the
American organization for Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OHSA)
and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). However, this approach lacks
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
52
consistency as it is not uncommon for the local organizations to select different
items / parts of the international standards to minimise risk exposure. For example,
sometimes, in these manuals, the main contractors are held responsible for safety,
while at other times it is the responsibility of the client. Thus there is no uniform
policy for developing and revising safety manuals. Only in government projects It is
necessary for the contractor to insure his workforce against accidents, and thus be
eligible for the contract; such is not the case for the private sector, where no one
takes responsibility for an accident due to the lack of safety procedures. As a result,
the construction industry is a fertile ground for costly disputes and claims, which
badly affects the performance of the projects, and the industry as a whole.
The same is true for many international construction companies, which are operating
in Pakistan; the country could inherit their mature safety culture. However, as the
government and overall regulatory environment does not adequately support safety
issues, this approach assuages the function of the international firms in terms of their
safety planning and procedures. Such omissions give international companies a good
opportunity to increase their profit margin by cutting down their safety costs /
investments.
The high illiteracy rate among the workforce can also be identified as one of the
main causes for poor health and safety status in Pakistan. Illiteracy does not allow
workers to become familiar with occupational health and safety issues. Further, the
presence of “irresponsible attitudes” by some workers, not only towards their job but
towards the workplace as well, is another factor in reducing or eliminating the
potential safety culture. The workers have little experience or skills in specialised
construction industry. Examples of the impact of culture are: the popular use of
bamboo scaffolding; working barefooted on construction sites; and the mixing of
concrete with bare hands. These and other behaviours would never be acceptable as
safety and health practices within developed countries; In Pakistan, these practises
are not only well-accepted, but have become part of the construction culture.
A lack of expertise at the policymaking level has resulted in a lack of development
for effective and practical safety rules and a positive climate for safer worksites.
Chapter4
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
53
There is no formal education available. Indeed, there is no national focal institution
that can provide training and advisory services to the workforce. However, and to
the best of the author’s knowledge, there are a very limited number of local
institutions, such as the Centre for Improvement of Working Conditions and
Environment (CIWCE), which provide basic occupational health and safety training.
This centre though a provincial government department, strives hard to enhance
safety and health awareness in all labour-based industries (manufacturing,
construction, chemical, etc). Presently, CIWCE is providing general as well
specialised safety training to workers and managers throughout Pakistan.
Additionally financial constraints within the construction industry are also a major
factor of the unsafe performance of the worker, as are job security and low payment
rates. Such factors push the worker to take extra risks and work overtime. When a
worker is aware of the short-term nature of employment, their priority will be to get
more hours for work so as to earn more money for their livelihood. Therefore, they
find little or no justification for becoming concerned with safety policies and other
related safety issues; to them it is nothing but a waste of time.
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
54
Chapter 5
Research Methodology
5.1. Introduction
Chapter five presents the research methodology used to explore the influence of
national culture on safety climate within Pakistan’s construction industry during the
course of the thesis. A schematic representation of the research activities and their
expected output are depicted in Figure 5.1.
5.2. Methodology
The methodology adopted for carrying out this research is described below:
• Compilation of relevant knowledge; and
• Selection and development of data collection tools (instruments);
• Data collection:
- Selection of sites and samples; and
- Data collection process;
• Data analysis:
- Phase 1: Extracting factors representing workers’ attitudes and
perceptions; managers’ safety practices and main aspects of workers’ and
managers’ national culture through undertaking factor analysis for four
different questionnaires.;
- Phase 2: Predicting workers’ behaviour through their perceptions,
attitudes and cultural dimensions and correlation between attitudes and
cultural dimensions (using Binary logistic regression and Pearson
correlation); and
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
55
- Phase 3: Predicting workers’ perceptions and attitudes through national
culture dimensions, and managers’ safety practices (using multiple
regression analysis).
Input Activity Activity Output
Literature Review Compilation of Knowledge
Research Rationale;
Research Objectives;
Research Design
Research Objectives;
Research Design
Selection & Development of
Data Collection Tools
Industry Input
Questionnaire Survey &
Interviews
Data Collected
Data Analysis
Factor Analysis
(1
st
Phase)
Extraction of Factors:
WAS, WCS, MS-II,
MCS
Pearson Correlation
(2
nd
Phase)
Logistic Regression
(2
nd
Phase)
Multiple Regressions
Analysis
(3
rd
Phase)
Relationship b/w
Workers Attitudes &
Workers behaviours
Prediction of Workers
Behaviour through
Attitudes and Perceptions
Prediction of Workers
Behaviour through
National Culture
Relationship b/w
Managers Practices and
National Culture
Prediction of Workers’
Perceptions &Attitudes
through National Culture
& Managers’ Safety
Practices
* Questionnaires
Developed
* WAS, WBS, WCS, MS-I, MS-II, MCS, and NCS [WCS+MCS] (For questionnaires’ description refer to Figure 5.2)
Collected Data
Extracted Factors of
WAS, WCS, MS-II &
MCS
Extracted Factors of
WAS, NCS & MS-II
Figure 5.1. Research Activities and Expected Output
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
56
5.2.1. Compilation of Relevant Knowledge
The literature review, which always acts as a sound foundation for a PhD research,
was undertaken on construction safety management and related topics, including
safety management performance and its measurement. Additionally, a detailed
literature review was conducted on national culture, its different existing models and
related dimensions.
5.2.2. Selection and Development of Data Collection Tools
The majority of research within the social sciences and management spheres
involves: asking and obtaining answers to questions through conducting surveys of
people; using questionnaires, interviews (face-to-face interviews or telephone
interviews); and case studies (Fellows and Liu, 1997). There is a finite supply of
resources available for carrying out fieldwork, especially when those resources are
restricted. Therefore, a decision on the choice of a research method is necessary. The
choice is affected by a consideration of the scope and depth required. According to
Fellows and Liu (1997), the choice is between a broad, but shallow, study at one
extreme and a narrow in-depth study at the other, or a study intermediate of these
extremes.
Survey research was selected as an appropriate method for data collection in this
study. Where a combination of facts and opinions is to be obtained, Dane (1990)
stated that survey research is the most appropriate. Moreover, survey methods are
most appropriate for description and prediction. Further, because surveys rarely
involve manipulation of independent variables or the random assignment to
conditions, they are not generally used for testing cause-effect hypotheses. Survey
research includes methods in which participants are asked questions directly through
questionnaires or interviews.
The data collection instruments used in this study were simple and concise, so as to
facilitate the process involving respondent understanding and respondent responses
at the same time. For ease of understanding this section is graphically explained in
Figure 5.2
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
57
Figure 5.2 Flow Chart for Section 5.2.2 Depicting Developed Surveys
5.2.2.1. Questionnaire Survey
A questionnaire is a preformatted written set of questions to which respondents
record their answers. The questionnaire is an efficient data collection mechanism
when the researcher knows exactly what is required, and how to measure the
variables of interest (Sekaran, 1992). Questionnaires can be administered personally
or mailed to the respondents. When the survey is confined to a local area and to
certain respondents, and the organisation is willing and able to assemble groups of
employees to respond to the questionnaires at their work places, personally
administering the questionnaires is the best way to collect the data. Any doubts
arising from the survey questions can be clarified immediately when personally
administering questionnaires. Moreover, the researcher also has the opportunity to
Heading No. 5.2.2 Selection & Development of Data
Collection Tools
Heading No. 5.2.2.1
Questionnaire Survey
Heading No. 5.2.2.2
Face-to-Face Interviews
(Managers)
Heading No. 5.2.2.1.1
Heading No. 5.2.2.1.2 Managers Safety Practices
(A) Workers’ Attitude Survey (WAS)
(B Workers’ Behavioural Survey (WBS)
MS-I
MS-II
Heading No. 5.2.2.1.3
NationalCulture Survey (NCS)
Workers Culture Survey (WCS)
Managers Culture Survey (MCS)
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
58
introduce the research topic and motivate respondents to give honest answers. As
questionnaires are commonly used in surveys, it is thus necessary to know how to
design an effective questionnaire. In designing the questionnaire for this research
study, the following three (3) areas, as identified by Sekaran (1992), were kept in
mind:
1. The wording of the questionnaire;
2. How the items are to be categorized, scaled and coded after the questionnaire
responses are received; and
3. The general appearance of the questionnaire.
In the construction industry, Safety Climate is one of the most popular methods of
measuring safety management performance (as discussed in Chapter Three). To
assist in this process a popular and effective method to explore workers and
managers attitudes and perceptions is the questionnaire survey. (The rationale for
identifying specific choice for such a tool has been discussed in Chapter Three.)
Recent investigations by Flin et al. (2000), McDonald et al. (2001) and Mohamed
(2002) have made a significant contribution towards developing the structured
questionnaire surveys adopted for this research study. The surveys were developed
to investigate attitudes, perceptions and behaviour of Pakistani workers, regarding
safety at local construction sites, as well as management practices (i.e. research
objectives: Nos: 1 and 2).
For this research study, five (5) distinct questionnaire surveys were developed, as
shown in Figure 5.1:
1. Workers Surveys
- Workers’ Attitude and Perception Survey (WAS)
- Workers’ Behavioural Survey (WBS)
2. Managers’ Safety Practices Survey (MS):
- Survey – I
- Survey – II
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
59
3. National Culture Surveys:
- Workers’ National Culture Survey (WCS)
- Managers’ National Culture Survey (MCS)
Each of these surveys is discussed in detail in the following sections.
5.2.2.1.1. Workers’ Survey
A recent study, conducted by McDonald et al., (2001) on safety behaviour within
the Irish construction industry, investigated whether perceptions, attitudes and
behaviour were associated with safety for a sample of eighteen (18) sites. This
particular study made a significant contribution towards developing the structured
questionnaire surveys adopted in this Irish study. Consequently, two-part, interview-
based questionnaire surveys were developed targeting “front line” workers, who are
considered to be the main agents for reporting on safety in the workplace, in order to
investigate:
• Part (A) Perceptions and attitudes of workers regarding safety at construction
sites; and
• Part (B) Safe work behaviour of workers at construction sites.
(A) Workers Attitude, Perception Survey (WAS)
As explained earlier in Chapter Two, Section 2.3, the items for questionnaire survey
for part (A) were taken from a literature review and recent studies conducted by Flin
et al. (2000), McDonald et al. (2001) and Mohamed (2002). To demonstrate, Flin et
al. (2000) study helped in identifying the themes of safety climate, which assisted in
exploring the perceptions and attitudes of Pakistani construction workers. The
studies by McDonald et al. (2001) and Mohamed (2002) aided the development of
the items; helped match the themes to develop the questionnaire, which comprised
twenty five (25) statements dealing with perceptions of workers, management’s
commitment toward safety, perceptions of safety management systems, workers’
risk perception and competence, physical work environment, safety supervisions and
inspections, and relationships. (See Appendix A for the WAS questionnaire)
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
60
For each statement, workers were required to express the level of their agreement
(provided the item was relevant to their particular trade) on a five-point Likert-type
scale (where 1= strong disagreement, and 5= strong agreement).
(B) Workers Behavioural Survey (WBS)
A literature review on the causes of fatal construction accidents revealed that falls
from height was the leading cause of death. Berg (1999) found falls were the main
cause of fatalities within the construction industry (worldwide). Davies and Tomasin
(1996) reported that 70 - 80 % of all fatalities in the United Kingdom (UK), each
year were attributed to falls. A study by Shah (2003) on the causes and types of
accidents within Pakistan’s construction industry showed falls as a significant type
of accident. Although official statistical data on construction accidents in Pakistan is
not available as such, from the basis of the literature review an overview of the
situation was gained. A few studies (Kartam and Bouz, 1998; Pipitsupaphol and
Wantanabe, 2000; Awan, 2001; Lubega et al., 2001) conducted on the types and
causes of construction accidents within developing countries, which reflects a
similar operations environment to Pakistan, has highlighted that the category of falls
from height is the most frequently occurring type of accident. Therefore the
instrument was developed to explore workers intentional behaviour by asking them
questions regarding falling from height (See Appendix B for the WBS
questionnaire). The procedure of behavioural questionnaire development is
explained in the following section.
The three (3) most common scenarios of working at height were identified from the
literature review. These were:
(a) Working on scaffolds;
(b) Using ladders; and
(c) Working on roofs.
Each of these were then classified into three different situations related to each
scenario. These nine (9) situations are as follows:
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
61
(a) Working on Scaffolds
Situation 1: Working on scaffolds not totally boarded [SS1].
Situation 2: Working on scaffolds with missing guardrails [SS2].
Situation 3: Climbing up or down a scaffold when a ladder has not been
provided [SS3].
(b) Using Ladders
Situation 4: Using a ladder not tied or secured [LS1].
Situation 5: Using a ladder broken or somehow defective [LS2].
Situation 6: Using a ladder shorter than 1 metre above landing place [LS3].
(c) Working on Roof
Situation 7: Working on fragile roofs without crawling boards [RS1].
Situation 8: Working on roofs without edge protection (and no harness
provided) [RS2].
Situation 9: Working on roofs in bad weather [RS3].
The workers were presented with these nine situations and were requested to analyse
each from three perspectives. They had to: 1) evaluate their perceived level of risk
for each situation (low risk, medium risk or high risk); 2) state the frequency at
which these situations occur in the construction sector and at the present site (rare,
usual or frequent); and 3) predict their intentional behaviour if the situation occurred
on the site “today” (stop working or continue working). To determine their level of
experience, workers were asked about the frequency at which they worked on
scaffolds, with ladders and on rooves. Only those workers who reported working in
those specific areas either “sometimes” or “often” were allowed to answer questions
on the three specific situations in the relevant categories.
5.2.2.1.2. Management Survey
According to Mearns et al. (2003), the examination of safety management practices
should be considered an adjunct to the assessment of safety climate within an
organization. During the past decade, there has been increased interest in trying to
understand how management practices and organizational factors impact on
workplace safety. Research has focused on managers as role models for instilling
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
62
safety awareness and supporting safe behaviour (Flin et al., 1996; Mattila et al.,
1994). Advocating the importance of safety management systems and practices,
Hofmann et al. (1995) described individual attitudes and behaviours in safety
climate as micro-elements of an organisation. These micro-elements are themselves
determined by macro- elements of an organization, like safety management practices.
Kirwan (1998) relates safety management practices to the actual practices, roles and
functions associated with remaining safe. It is therefore more than a “paper systems”
of policies and procedures (Mearns et al., 2003). Duff et al. (1993) and Robertson et
al. (1999) carried out a two–phased study on the effectiveness of different
management strategies. Specifically, they looked at the effects of feedback, goal
setting and training, on safety performance. Duff et al. (1993) concluded that
management commitment was an important moderator of the effectiveness of the
management practices. While six years later, in phase two of their research,
Robertson et al. (1999) also found that the techniques used produced marked
improvements in site safety, with participative goal-setting being the most effective
of the three and recommended a continuous and consistent management
commitment along the life-cycle of the site commitment as “vitally important”.
Tam and Fung (1998) studied the effectiveness of safety management strategies of
45 construction firms in Hong Kong. Their study identified seven (7) management
strategies to reduce accident rates on sites. The strategies were: level of management
responsibility; orientation programmes; safety personnel on site; safety awards and
incentive schemes; post-accident investigation and feedback; safety training and its
intensity; and presence of safety committees.
Lingard and Rowlinson (1998, cited in McDonald et al., 2001) used a similar design
to Duff et al. (1993) in the Hong Kong construction industry. They reported highly
significant improvements due to site housekeeping as a management strategy. They
concluded that, “in behaviour-based safety management programs... safe behaviour
can only be achieved where a basic safety infrastructure is already in place”.
To investigate the role-played by management, and the safety related
activities/practices carried out by management, a structured survey was conducted.
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
63
This structured questionnaire, taken from the study of McDonald et al. (2001),
explored the following areas of management practices:
• Existence of proper safety action plan;
• Workers, managers and subcontractors competence and training;
• Safety monitoring and accident reporting systems;
• Communication systems within the workplace;
• Assumptions about the responsibility for safety; and
• Co-operation of the main contractor with sub contractor/s and vice versa.
Additionally, each management staff was asked for their personal and professional
information background (i.e. age, job title, experience in construction and safety
training received). Finally management was asked to provide personal suggestions
for improvements to the safety systems at the site.
The sample included managers with safety management responsibilities (project
managers, project engineers, site engineers and site supervisors). The questionnaires
had both qualitative and quantitative items that evaluated the key features of the
managers’ safety practices. Managers’ questionnaires were of two types. Type one
questionnaire, labelled as managers’ survey-1 (MS-I), contained a detailed format of
questionnaire addressing the key issues of the management safety systems. It
included open-ended and close-ended questions. The open-ended questions were
provided with a view to obtain as much as information possible about site safety
conditions and plans. This questionnaire also had several quantitative measures
(Keys) built into it. These quantitative measures (Keys) were provided to facilitate
the intention to translate the qualitative impressions gathered after each interview
into some measurable rating scales (See Appendix C for the MS-I questionnaire).
The second questionnaire was labelled as managers’ survey-II (MS-II); it was the
summary of the first, and was developed to confirm the respondent is bias. The
second questionnaire acted as a counter check tool for the results from the first
questionnaire. The second questionnaire contained 14 closed-ended type statements,
which addressed key safety issues of management systems. For each statement,
management were required to express the level of their agreement on a five point
Likert-type scale, where 1 = strong disagreement, and 5 = strong agreement (See
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
64
Appendix D for the MS-II questionnaire). The collected interviews for MSI were
transcribed and a single and comprehensive description of the safety management
systems was then generated from that questionnaire. Those generated descriptions
were matched with the answers given by the same respondents to MSII.
5.2.2.1.3. National Culture Survey (NCS)
In order to explore the main aspects of national culture in workers and in managers,
a national culture questionnaire was developed for both samples (Workers’ Culture
Survey (WCS) and Managers’ Culture Survey (MCS)). It contained twenty five (25)
statements dealing with the four identified dimensions of Hofstede’s (1980) study.
These dimensions included: power distance, individualism, masculinity and
uncertainty avoidance. The statements of the cultural questionnaire were developed
primarily from the values survey module (VSM) of Hofstede (1980). A few items
referred to the themes of power-distance and uncertainty avoidance and were
adopted as well from the study by Van Oudenhoven (2001). All these statements
were modified to reflect the context of construction safety management, and in order
to investigate how culture could affect safety perceptions and attitudes. For each
statement, workers and managers were required to express the level of their
agreement on a five point Likert-type scale, where 1= strong agreement, and 5=
strong disagreement (See Appendix E for the NCS questionnaire).
5.2.2.2. Face-to-Face Interviews
The main advantage of face-to-face or direct interviews is that the researcher can
adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubts, and ensure the responses are
properly understood by repeating or rephrasing the questions. However, the main
disadvantages of face-to-face interviews are the geographical limitations they may
impose on the surveys, and the vast resources needed if such surveys need to be
conducted nationally or internationally.
5.2.2.2.1. Managers Interviews
The management staffs of 11 construction companies were interviewed face-to-face
by the author to capture their thoughts and suggestions on safety issues in Pakistan.
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
65
5.2.3. Data Collection
5.2.3.1. Selection of Sites and Samples
One of the main objectives of this research was to explore the safety perceptions,
attitudes, and safe /unsafe behaviours of the construction workers. Therefore it was
considered desirable to select those sites which have a wide range of construction
activities. Also another aspect, which made this selection task more problematic,
was the perceived lack of cooperation between industry professionals and
researchers. To overcome this problem the author had to initiate contacts with local
industry professionals to facilitate access to a number of sites.
Keeping this limitation in mind, the eight (8) sites were selected on the following
basis:
• Different Mega projects in progress, including high-rise buildings, fly-overs
and bridges.
• Sufficient numbers, sizes and different trades involved.
• Personal exploration to identify construction companies running those
construction sites. Eleven (11) construction companies were identified as
operating those eight sites. They were selected from Pakistan Engineering
Council (PEC) index for construction companies. All 11 were from the top
20 companies of Pakistan, which were rated under category C-1 (refer to
Table 4.1 in Chapter Four for companies classification in Pakistan). Out of
these eleven (11) companies, eight (8) were working as main contractors and
three (3) as specialized sub-contractors. The selection of these 11 companies
was based mainly on the assurance given for co-operation by the
management of the companies working on different projects.
• Co-operation of the Labour Department of the Sindh and Punjab provinces.
Therefore it could be argued that this study was generally representative due to:
• The cross-sectional research design adopted.
• The sample not including very small sites or sites in rural areas;
• The eight (8) large construction sites operating versatile projects, such as:
flyovers, bridges and high-rise buildings in three (3) major cities in Pakistan;
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
66
• The 140 workers being randomly selected, across a range of the six most
common and exposed trades at hazardous sites; and
• The 130 responses from managers representing 11 construction companies
being selected. This sample varied from project managers to site supervisors.
5.2.3.2. Data Collection Process
Workers Data Collection
The primary goal of this research was to investigate the perceptions, attitudes and
behaviours of Pakistani workers regarding safety at construction sites. To achieve
this goal, a total of eight (8) large construction projects, in a number of large cities in
Pakistan, were included in the research. One hundred and forty (140) workforce
members from the six (6) of the most common trades exposed to hazardous site
conditions were surveyed. These trades included scaffolder, mason, steel fixer,
carpenter, electrician and painter. A total of three sets (Appendices A,B and E) of
140 questionnaires were completed across the eight sites. At the beginning of each
site survey, the site administration (main contractor or sub-contractor) management
staffs were contacted for permission to undertake the surveys. Additionally
management staff was requested to introduce the survey administrator to workers, or
their respective supervisors, to facilitate the process of data collection. Each survey
respondent was briefed about the objectives and nature of the study. A total of 420
questionnaires were completed across these eight sites.
A survey team of three (3) persons (including the author) was involved in
administrating the survey at each site. Each interviewer approached the operative,
briefed them about the objectives and nature of the study and asked for their co-
operation in this regard. As mentioned earlier, on most of the sites, the management
introduced the survey team, either directly to operatives or through their respective
supervisors; as a consequence, operatives did not show much hesitation in extending
their co-operation.
Chapter5
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
67
Managers Data Collection
For managers’ data collection, management staff from 11 construction companies
from the same 8 construction projects was interviewed. The managers’ sample size
included 100 management personnel for managers’ safety practices questionnaires
(MS-I & MS-II) and 130 for the cultural survey (MCS). The Head Offices for these
11 companies were contacted first. The project directors/project managers at the
head offices were requested to participate in the questionnaire survey; permissions
were granted for interviewing managerial staff at the site as well, including of
project engineers, site engineers and site supervisors.
5.2.4. Data Analysis
The data collected from the questionnaire surveys and interviews were analysed.
The analytical analysis was undertaken using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS) version 11.5. The analysis included: descriptive analysis, factor analysis,
reliability testing Pearson correlation testing, binary logistic regression analysis, and
regression analysis. (Refer to Figure 5.1 for phase-wise distribution of data analysis).
The data analysis and the results for the whole set of workers surveys are detailed in
Chapter Six. Additionally, the data analysis and the results of managers’ surveys are
reported in Chapter Seven.
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
68
Chapter 6
Workers Survey Analysis & Results
Chapter Six exclusively discusses the procedures adopted to statistically analyse the
collected data from the workers’ surveys and then details all the results, along with
the related tables and graphs.
6.1. Background Information
As mentioned previously in Chapter Five, 140 workers, representing the six most
common trades exposed to hazardous site conditions (refer to Figure 6.1 for
graphical distribution of trade classification) were interviewed using the following
three (3) questionnaires/surveys:
1. Attitude and Perception Survey (WAS) - Appendix A
2. Behavioural Survey (WBS) - Appendix B; and
3. National Culture Survey (NC) – Appendix E
A total of (140 X 3) = 420 survey responses were completed across eight large
construction projects in three (3) large cities in Pakistan. About 62% of the sample
(87 workers) was employed directly by the main contractor, while 38% (53 workers)
were employed by sub-contractors. This section presents brief background
information of the survey respondents. It is worth noting here that, for background
information, the workers “age” criteria was not taken into account. At the initial
stage of the questionnaire surveys, the author tried to ask the workers for their age,
but as expected from the authors’ previous industry working experience, the workers
were not able to tell their correct age. As the majority of the workers working in
Pakistani construction industry are illiterate, there is often no way for them to know
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
69
their age thus, to avoid any bias or confusion in the data, age was not considered for
the analysis.
0
10
20
30
40
50
Mason Carpenter Scaffolder Electrician Steel fixer Painter
Trades Interviewed
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Figure 6.1 Frequency of Distribution of Trades Interviewed
6.1.1. Experience
Most of the operatives who were interviewed had a good deal of working experience
in the construction industry. Out of 140 workers, 23 (16 %) had worked for 5 years
or less; 50 (36 %) for around ten years; 28 (20 %) for around fifteen years; 14
(10 %) for around twenty years; and 25 (18 %) for more then twenty years. (Refer to
Figure 6.2 for workers’ experience distribution.)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 20 +
Workers Construction Experience in Years
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Figure 6.2 Workers Construction Experience in Years
Total = 140 Workers
Total = 140 Workers
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
70
6.1.2. Safety Training
It was observed from the replies of the questionnaires, that very few workers had
basic safety training. Almost 80% of the respondents stated that they had not
received any sort of safety training at all; 15.5% of the sample reported having a
half-day training session, which they considered as just a basic one. The remaining
5.5% of respondents had received training for one whole day. It was interesting to
observe that most of the workers with construction experience of twenty or more
years had received training either for a half or full day.
6.2. Attitude and Perception Survey Analysis
As an early step in the data analysis, all questionnaire responses were checked to
ensure completeness and readability before the data were processed using the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 11.5. The questionnaire
(Appendix A) comprised 25 variables dealing with workers’ perceptions of safety-
related issues. The data gathered from the WAS were factor-analysed to examine the
interrelationships among the 25 variables and to reduce this number of original
variables into a smaller set of factors.
6.2.1. Factor Analysis
Factor analysis, a multivariate statistical technique, is commonly used to identify a
smaller number of relevant factors than the original number of individual variables.
The application of this technique can reduce the data to a representative subset of
variables or even create new variables as replacements for the original variables,
while still retaining their original characteristics (Hair et al., 1998).
6.2.2. Checks for Factor Analysis
Prior to performing factor analysis, the suitability of data for the analysis was
assessed. In order to do that, the first check was to measure the adequacy of sample
the size. The preferable sample size should be 100 or larger. As a general rule, the
minimum should have at least five times as many observations as there are variables
to be analysed (Hair et al., 1998). The sample size of the workers total led 140, with
the ratio of 5.6 cases to 1 variable, which satisfies the specified limit. The second
check was to assess the factorability of the correlation matrix via the visual
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
71
inspection of the workers’ attitude survey correlation matrix. If the visual inspection
revealed no substantial number of correlations greater than 0.30, then the factor
analysis was probably inappropriate (Hair et al., 1998). Inspection of the correlation
matrix revealed that more than 60 percent of the correlations were greater than 0.30
at the 0.01 level of significance. This result provides an adequate basis for
proceeding to the next level, the empirical examination of the adequacy for factor
analysis.
The third check was to examine the anti-image correlation matrix; the diagonals on
that specific matrix should have an overall Measure of Sampling Adequacy (MSA)
of 0.50 or above (Hair et al., 1998). The same criterion of MSA applies to the values
of individual variables; which should be considered for elimination from further
analysis if they are low on this measure (Hair et al., 1998). Examination of the
values of each variable revealed four variables with low MSA values (ranged from
0.36 to 0.40). The four eliminated variables were:
• My site managers, foremen and supervisors always inform me of safety
concerns and issues;
• Management encourages feedback regarding safety issues from site
workers;
• Safety inspections are carried out on a regular basis; and
• Under work pressure, it is normal to take shortcuts at the expense of safety.
After omitting the above variables, the MSA test was conducted again, to check the
revised values for overall and individual MSA. The revised set of variables
exhibited satisfactory values ranging from 0.57 to 0.92 and therefore were deemed
fit for further analysis.
The reduced data set of 21 variables resulted in a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)
measure of sampling adequacy of 0.83, which is considered as meritorious (Kaiser,
1974). Another mode of determining the appropriateness of factor analysis, the
Bartlett test of sphericity, reached statistical significance with chi-square 5904.29,
df190 and significance level of 0.000. Therefore factor analysis was deemed
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
72
appropriate. Several unsuccessful attempts were made before an acceptable final
three-factor solution was chosen. However, the learning experience achieved
through the earlier versions helped to give confidence in the final solution as both
representative of the data set and the realistic terms of interpretation. An initial
capture of factors was made for the data set of workers’ attitude and perception
survey, using the principal component analysis approach with exploratory factor
analysis through SPSS 11.5. Factor solutions without rotation were computed. The
latent root criterion was used with eigenvalues equal to or greater than unity, in
order to establish the number of extraction factors (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001).
This exercise revealed the presence of three (3) distinct factors. To obtain
interpretable results for those three factors, a varimax rotation was then performed.
Varimax rotation minimizes the number of variables that have high loadings on any
one given factor.
A varimax solution yields results that make it as easy as possible to identify each
variable with a single factor. The three-factor solution accounted for 79 percent of
the total variance. The factors were then examined to identify the number of items
that loaded on each factor. For practical significance, factor loadings were restricted
to 0.50 and above (Hair et al., 1998). The pattern of factor loadings revealed the
presence of only one odd variable, which had a factor loading (0.35) less than the
required level, therefore it was deemed fit for elimination. The eliminated variable
was:
• Working with defective equipment is not allowed under any circ*mstances.
The reliability scores (Cronbach’s α) were also calculated for individual factors;
they ranged from 0.695 to 0.761, indicating adequate internal consistency (Kaplan
and Saccuzzo, 1993). Table 6.1 details the remaining 20 variables in three factors,
and their respective factor loadings, the explained variances, eigenvalues and
Cornbach’s α for the three factors.
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
73
Table 6.1 Factor Loadings for the 3-factor Model of Workers’ Attitudes and
Perceptions
6.2.3. Factors Interpretation
As mentioned above, three factors were extracted. They were assessed and
numbered in a descending order of the amount of variance explained to determine
underlying features that linked them. Each factor was subjectively labelled in
accordance with the set of individual items it contained. The first factor, “Awareness
and Beliefs”, accounts for 38% of the total variance and comprises 11 items. All of
which indicate the degree of awareness or belief workers have of both their own and
management’s safety responsibilities. The majority of items enjoy relatively large
factor loadings (>0.75). Loadings, however, suggest that a belief in the item (safe
work habits improve productivity) is relatively weakly associated with this factor. It
is encouraging to see respondents having a positive attitude towards safety and its
related aspects. This positive belief was reflected in items focusing on respondents’
competency, awareness, and ability to work safely. Workers seem to share a
common belief that working safely is a top priority for all involved. They also
recognize management as a safety associate; this is reflected by a reasonable degree
Factor 1: Awareness and Beliefs
(Variance = 38%, Eigenvalue = 7.517, Cronbach’s α = .761)
Loadings
I find working with a certain amount of risk exciting [.845]
I believe safe work habits improve production [.586]
I am capable of identifying potentially hazardous situations [.731]
Management acts decisively when a safety concern is raised [.962]
Working safely is the top priority for site managers, foremen & supervisors [.902]
Management “ turns a blind eye” on basic safety issues [-.739]
I am never encouraged to raise any safety concern [.755]
I am clear about what my responsibilities are for safety [.847]
I am aware of my trade relevant safety procedures [.810]
I am not given enough time to do the job safely [.861]
Personal protective equipments are useful for increasing the safety level [.818]
Factor 2: Physical Work Environment
(Variance = 25%, Eigenvalue = 4.790, Cronbach’s α = .712)
Construction sites are dangerous places [-.865]
My job carries a considerable level of risk [-.589]
I am rarely worried about being injured on the job [-.766]
Usually I don’t get the right equipment to do job safely [.810]
All equipment and materials supplied to work are in good conditions [.743]
Factor 3: Supportive Environment
(Variance = 16%, Eigenvalue =2.421 , Cronbach’s α = .695)
Safety training is provided on skills specific to individual tasks and equipment [.784]
Potential risks and consequences are identified in training [.819]
I believe that prevention of accidents is the responsibility of everyone [.920]
Good working relationship among the workers is often necessary for safety [.901]
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
74
of agreement (mean scores narrowly fluctuating about 4.0) with items addressing
management safety responsibilities.
The second factor, “Physical Work Environment”, contains five items and accounts
for 25% of the total variance. This factor includes three items relating to risk
perception, and the other two to the use of equipment. Collectively, this group of
items demonstrates the workers’ perception of the risk that they are generally
exposed to in their workplace environment, and how such an environment
contributes positively or otherwise to their personal safety. Overwhelmingly, the
responding workers seem to perceive construction sites as dangerous places, and
their jobs to be associated with high risks. The mean scores for these two items were
4.65 and 4.75, respectively. The respondents appear to be relatively satisfied with
the availability, but not the condition of the equipment needed to carry out the job
safely.
The third and last factor, “Supportive Environment”, has four items and accounts for
16% of the variance. Two items demonstrated a strong belief that shared
responsibility and good working relationships are prerequisites to making sites a
safe workplace environment. Two more items loaded on this factor appear to be
related to training. The combination of these four items indicates the intensity of
support given by peers (through shared responsibility and involvement) and
management (through training) to perform the job safely. A closer examination,
however, revealed that training is scarce, and only a few workers have had limited
experience with formal safety training; thus respondents were less inclined to agree
with statements referring to on-site hazard-identification skills gained through
training.
6.2.4. One-Way Analysis of Variance
To evaluate the perceived statistically significant differences between workers’
attitude and perception factors (Awareness and Beliefs, Physical Work Environment,
and Supportive Environment) and the different trades of the workers (i.e. masons,
scaffolders, carpenters, electricians, steel fixers and painters), a one-way analysis of
variance was performed. Differences in the mean scores in different trades, related
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
75
to their attitude and perceptions factors, along with F-Ratio and statistical
significance of F-Ratio are shown in Table 6.2. The mean scores for the trade of
“Scaffolders” tends to be higher in “Awareness and Beliefs” and “Supportive
Environment” factors than that of other trades. There were no statistically significant
differences found among the factor of “Physical Work Environment” and the six
trades.
The tendency of scaffolders, to have a relatively higher agreement with “Awareness
and Beliefs “and “Supportive Environment”, as compared to other trades, depicts that
workers, belonging to the trade of scaffolding, posses a higher rate of consciousness
towards safety awareness and beliefs and prefer a more supportive environment.
Table 6.2 One way ANOVA analysis between Worker trades and their Attitude
and Perception Factors
Trades
Masons Scaffolders Carpenters Electricians Steel Fixers Painters
Workers Attitude
& Perception
Factors
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
F-Ratio
Sig. of
F
Awareness and
Beliefs
3.51 0.84 3.79 0.58 3.28 1.06 3.45 0.45 3.63 0.94 3.50 1.03 2.43
*
0.038
Physical Work
Environment
3.58 1.06 3.47 0.74 3.37 0.52 3.28 0.64 3.37 0.47 3.65 0.85 1.06 0.383
Supportive
Environment
3.52 0.66 3.77 0.61 3.54 0.69 3.48 0.94 3.59 0.81 3.36 1.01 4.254
**
0.001
Mean scores based on a 5-point scale (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree); S.D.= Standard
Deviation;
*
Represents significance level p< 0.05;
**
Represents significance level p< 0.01
6.3. Workers’ Behavioural Analysis
This section deals with the second questionnaire (Appendix B) and is concerned
with risk perception and the intentional behaviour associated with working at
heights.
6.3.1. Experience in Working at Heights
Workers in the sample reported high levels of experience in working on scaffolds,
ladders and roofs. For example, 100% of the sample agreed that they sometimes or
always work on ladders. In relation to roofs, a substantial 93% of the sample
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
76
reported working on roofs sometimes or always. (Refer to Figure 6.3 for workers
experience in working at heights.)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Never or very lit t le Somet imes Oft en or always
%
a
g
e
o
f
S
a
m
p
l
e
Roof Sit uat ion Ladder Sit uat ion Scaffolding Sit uat ion
Figure 6.3 Workers Experience in Working at Heights
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Scaffolds
not boarded
Missing
hand-rails
Unsafe
access to
scaffolds
Ladder not
tied
Defective
ladder
Ladders too
short
Fragile roof Roofs
without
edge
protection
Working on
roofs in bad
weather
S
i
t
u
a
t
i
o
n
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
(
%
)
N/A Rare Occasional Frequent
Figure 6.4 Frequency of Occurrence of the Situations
6.3.2. Frequency of the Situations Occurring on Site
In the behavioural questionnaire, workers were asked to state the frequency of all
nine situations occurring on the site on a scale of rare to frequent (for the nine
behavioural situations refer to Chapter Five). Working on roofs without edge
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
77
protection and working on roofs in windy weather were considered more frequently
occurring situations as compared to other the situations. Refer to
Figure 6.4 for graphical distribution of frequency occurring on sites.
6.3.3. Perception of Risk
As mentioned earlier, workers were asked to consider the risk levels for nine given
working situations and their intentional (i.e. preferred) behaviour whenever each
situation was encountered. With the exception of one situation, all the remaining
presented situations regarding working on scaffolds, using ladders and working on
roofs were perceived as of either medium or high risk. Workers perceived working
on: 1) scaffolds which are not totally boarded; 2) ladders which are not tied or
secured well; and 3) fragile roofs, as being the most risky of the nine situations
presented. Working on roofs in windy weather, however, was perceived as the least
risky. Only a small percentage of workers (i.e. no more than 10% of the sample)
reported a low risk perception of the following situations:
• Working on scaffolds with some handrails missing;
• Accessing scaffolds by climbing them up and down; and
• Using broken or somehow defective ladders.
The findings on risk perception for these three risky situations show that the
majority of workers do not have a misperception of the risks associated with these
situations. However, there is a minority of workers who do misperceive them and so
could be exposing themselves and other co-workers to risks due to their
misperception. This result is in line with the findings of McDonald et al. (2001),
where typically 3-5% of workers on site were found to have a low perception of risk
to situations seen by others as of medium-to-high risk. It is worth mentioning that
this minority of workers, in the sample, appears to be inexperienced workers with
only 1-5 year’s construction working experience. (Refer to Figure 6.5 for graphical
average distribution of risk as perceived by workers and Figure 6.6 for their
preferred behaviour.)
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
78
An interesting finding concerned the relation between workers’ perceptions of risk
and preferred behaviour. For situations clearly perceived as of medium-to-high risk,
the majority of workers preferred to stop working. These situations included:
• Working on scaffolds which are not totally boarded (74 % perceived it as of
high risk, and 97 % of those, reported stop working as the preferred
behavioural option);
• Working with ladders that are not tied well or secured (64 % perceived it as
of high risk, and 94 % of those reported stop working as the preferred
behavioural option);
• Working on broken or somehow defective ladders (40 % perceived it as of
high risk, and 73 % of those reported stop working as the preferred
behavioural option); and
• Working on fragile roofs without crawling boards (60 % perceived it as of
high risk, and 93 % of those reported stop working as the preferred
behavioural option).
In the situation of working on roofs without edge protection, 65 % of workers
perceived it as of low-risk and 94 % of them opted to continue working. Working on
roofs in windy weather was also perceived by the majority of workers as a low-risk
situation and hence they were more likely to continue working. The reported
frequency of encountering the following three situations on site was occasional:
• Working on scaffolds with hand-rails missing;
• Working with scaffolds with alternative of climbing up or down due to no
ladder provided; and
• Working on too short ladders for the task being performed.
Despite their occasional frequency on site, workers reported a medium to high
perception of risk level for the above three situations. It was interesting to note that
almost half of them opted to continue working. This result could be attributed to the
situation’s occasional occurrence where workers believe that they know how to
handle it safely.
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
79
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Scffolds
not boarded
Missing
hand-rails
Unsafe
access t o
scaffolds
Ladder not
t ied
Defect ive
Ladder
Ladders t oo
short
Fargile roof Roofs
wit hout
edge
prot ect ion
Working
on roofs in
bad weat her
Nine Behavioural Sit uat ions
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
D
e
g
r
e
e
o
f
R
i
s
k
P
e
r
c
e
p
t
i
o
n
Figure 6.5 Average Risk Perceived by Workers for Nine Behavioural Situations,
in a Scale of Low (0-1), Medium (1-2), and High (2-3).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Scaffolds
not boarded
Missing
hand-rails
Unsafe
access to
scaffolds
Ladder not
tied
Defective
ladder
Ladders too
short
Fragile roof Roofs
without
edge
protection
Working on
roofs in bad
weather
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
o
f
P
r
e
f
e
r
r
e
d
B
e
h
a
v
i
o
u
r
(
%
)
N/A Stop Working Follow Working
Figure 6.6 Preferred Behaviour of the Workers
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
80
6.4. Prediction of Workers Intentional Behaviour by Attitudes and
Perceptions
6.4.1. Binary Logistic Regression
In order to determine whether workers’ intentional behaviour is best explained by
their attitudes and perceptions, a binary logistic regression analysis test was
conducted in SPSS Version 11.5. Binary logistic regression, or logit analysis as it is
otherwise known, is a form of regression, which is used when the dependent
variable is dichotomous, and the independent variables are either continuous or
categorical or both (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 1989). Although similar to discriminant
analysis, logistic regression is often preferred, as it does not require that the
assumptions of multivariate normality and equal variance covariance matrices across
the group can be met (Norusis, 1994; Hair et al., 1995). Logistic regression applies
the maximum likelihood estimation after transforming the dependent into logit
variable. In essence, logistic regression is used to determine which variables affect
the probability of a particular outcome occurring (Hazard Munro, 1997). In the
context of the current study, logistic regression was used to assess the independent
effect of each of the already identified three factors of workers attitude and
perception on the nine behavioural situations. In other words, the nine behavioural
situations were taken as dependent variables (DVs), whereas awareness and beliefs,
physical environment and supportive environment (factors for workers attitude and
perception) were taken as covariates (IVs). The dependent variable is coded as zero
for the non-occurring of the event, which is “stop working”, and one for the
occurring of the event, which is “continue working”. The results of the logistic
regression are discussed in Section 6.4.5 and all variables entered for regression are
presented in a tabular form in Table 6.4, on page 85.
6.4.2. Interpretation of Results
The estimated logistic regression coefficients are reported under the column headed
‘B’ in Table 6.4. It can also be called “BETA”. The sign of these coefficients in
logistic regression works exactly the same as in standard regression models, with a
negative value indicating a negative relationship between the dependent and
independent variables and vice-versa. As it is not easy to think in terms of log-odd
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
81
probabilities, the logistic regression is generally reworked to report the findings in
terms of odds-ratios using the following equation (Norusis, 1999):
p p p p
X B
X B B
X B X B B
e e e ...
event) (no Prob
(event) Prob
0 1 0 0 1 0
....
+
+ + +
= =
Eq. [1]
In Equation [1], e is the base of natural logarithm (approximately 2.718) and B
0
,
B
1,…,
B
p
are the logistic regression coefficients. The odds-ratios are given in the
column Exp (B) in Table 6.4. This parameter is usually the main point of interest in
logistic regression due to its ease of interpretation (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 1989). In
essence, the odds-ratio reports the factor by which the odds of an event occurring
will increase or decrease with a unit change in the independent variable. The
significance of individual variables in the logistic regression equation is assessed by
the Wald statistic (W), which has a chi-square distribution. This statistic is generally
used to assess whether a coefficient is statistically different to zero, similar to the t-
test used in multiple regression. The Wald statistic, however has an undesirable
property when the absolute value of the regression coefficient becomes large, the
estimated standard error is too large as well, producing a Wald statistic that is too
small and leading to non-significant results (Norusis, 1999). In Table 6.4, no
particularly large coefficients are observed so the Wald statistic is considered a
reliable source of evaluation for the contribution of individual variables.
6.4.3. Bonferroni Type Adjustment
Bonferroni type adjustment or correction involves adjusting the desired alpha level
(needed to check statistical significance) downward to compensate for the increased
probability of type 1 error, “you reject null hypothesis, when you should accept it”.
In regression analysis, when multiple tests are performed on the same data set, as in
this data analysis, multiple binary logistic regressions are carried out; therefore a
Bonferroni type adjustment was made. An alpha was assigned to each DV so that
alpha for the set of DVs does not exceed some critical value (Tabachnick and Fidell,
2001)
Equation of Bonferroni adjustment:
Overall ) 1 )...( 1 )( 1 )( 1 ( 1
3 2 1 p
α α α α α − − − − − =
Eq. [2]
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
82
Now, as there were nine (9) DVs; by default, the alpha level was set on 0.05;
therefore the overall alpha level, according to the above stated equation, will be
0.370, which is above the 0.05. Therefore the alpha level for each DV was set as
0.005, thus the overall alpha came as 0.047, which comes under the acceptability
level of 0.05 .
6.4.4. Assessment of Overall Model Fit
As indicated previously, nine (9) DVs were put under binary logistic testing with
three (3) IVs separately; therefore the binary logistic regression analysis was
bundled out around 27 logistic regression models. Out of these 27 regression models
only 17 models were found statistically significant, using the overall level of alpha
(α) acceptability determined in the previous section.
Table 6.3 Summary of Logistic Regression Models Fit
Logistic
Models
Chi-
square
p
Nagelkerke
R-Sqaure
Percentage of
cases
correctly
predicted
1 (SS1) 4.475 .034 0.65 97
2 (SS2) 4.163 .041 0.60 58
3 (SS3) 3.939 .047 0.70 72
4 (LS1) 4.285 .038 0.55 92
5 (LS2) 3.874 .047 0.76 81
6 (LS3) 4.504 .034 0.65 80
7 (RS1) 5.098 .024 0.55 92
8 (RS2) 0.443 .506 0.60 80
A
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s
a
n
d
B
e
l
i
e
f
s
(
F
A
C
-
1
)
9 (RS3) 0.763 .368 0.55 `82
1 (SS1) 0.308 .579 0.50 91
2 (SS2) 4.418 .036 0.45 63
3 (SS3) 4.342 .037 0.50 81
4 (LS1) 3.797 .050 0.50 93
5 (LS2) 4.136 .042 0.67 80
6 (LS3) 4.504 .034 0.75 81
7 (RS1) 3.777 .051 0.63 84
8 (RS2) 0.238 .625 0.48 92
P
h
y
s
i
c
a
l
W
o
r
k
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
(
F
A
C
-
2
)
9 (RS3) 0.548 .459 0.71 82
1 (SS1) 0.071 .790 0.35 92
2 (SS2) 1.029 .310 0.40 59
3 (SS3) 1.029 .310 0.67 53
4 (LS1) 3.806 .051 0.65 93
5 (LS2) 0.165 .684 0.45 69
6 (LS3) 3.938 .047 0.66 77
7 (RS1) 1.006 .939 0.65 92
8 (RS2) 5.967 .015 0.55 93
S
u
p
p
o
r
t
i
v
e
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
(
F
A
C
-
3
)
9 (RS3) 5.788 .016 0.57 90
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
83
The proportion of variation explained by the logistic regression model can be
assessed by the R-square measure derived by Nagelkerke (Norusis, 1999). As many
regression experts have warned against the sole reliance of this measure to assess the
overall model fit (Pedhazur, 1997), other measures are used to assess model fit in
logistic regression. One such measure is the percentage of cases correctly predicted
by the classification table. The classification table indicates how many cases could
be correctly classified by chance (Hair et al., 1995). Table 6.3 depicts the models
summary, including: chi-square values along with their level of significance (p),
Nagelkerke R-square values, and overall correct prediction of cases in classification
tables.
6.4.5. Factors Influencing Likelihood of Continue Working
All three attitudes and perceptions factors, acting as IVs, predicted a large number of
behavioural situations. As Table 6.4 depicts, the first factor, Awareness and Beliefs,
emerged as the most influential predictor; it predicted seven out of nine behavioural
situations showing statistically significant correlations (using the standard alpha
level of 0.05). The predicated seven situations are as follows:
• Working with scaffolds, which are not totally boarded (SS1);
• Working with scaffolds with guard rails missing (SS2);
• Accessing scaffolds by climbing up and down (SS3);
• Working with ladders that are not tied (LS1);
• Working with ladders that are too short for the task being performed (LS2);
• Using a broken or defective ladder (LS3); and
• Working on a fragile roof without crawling boards (RS1).
As stated in Section 6.4.2, the Wald statistic should be used to find out the sequence
or order of prediction, as well as for determining the model fit for each significant
prediction; Table 6.3 will be cross-referenced. As stated in Section 6.4.4, the
percentage of correct prediction by the classification table and level of significance
will be used as a measure to identify the significance of the particular model for a
particular prediction. Out of these seven behavioural situations, the Scaffolding
situation (SS1), because of the high Wald statistic (W=4.845), emerged as the most
obvious one in predicting the behaviour. The model was statistically significant with
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
84
97 % of the overall prediction of the cases, along with p = .034 (refer to Table 6.3).
As shown by the associated odds ratio (Exp (B)) of 0.623, workers are likely to
have 0.623 times less probability to continue working if they are faced with situation
SS1. The negative sign of Beta (B= -.473) shows that the more workers are aware of
safety issues and have strong beliefs in safety, the less the chance they will continue
working in this situation.
The second most predominant behavioural situation was situation (LS1) with the
Wald Statistic as 4.601. The overall prediction of the cases for this statistically
significant model was 92 % with p = .038. Having an odds ratio of 0.499, workers in
this situation were less likely to continue working, if this particular situation
happens to them. Beta was again negative (B = -.695) for this prediction as well,
which again can be interpreted as meaning that the higher the degree of awareness
and belief in safety issues, the less likely they are going to continue working.
According to Wald statistic (W = 4.416), the next most influential predicted
situation was (SS2). The relationship for this situation was negative as well (B = -
.418), indicating that the workers in this particular situation have 0.658 times less
probability to continue working. The statistically significance of this model was p
= .041, with an overall correct prediction of the classification table as 58 %.
The significance of the influence for the factor of Awareness and Beliefs on the
ladder situation 3 (LS3) and roof situation (RS1) were found to be similar (p =.037
and the Wald statistics W=4.340). Both situations had a negative influence on the
probability of continuing the work (odds ratios are 0.691 & 0.147, respectively). The
model fit for LS3 and RS1 with an overall prediction of 80 % (p = .034) and 92 % (p
= .024), respectively
Ladder situation (LS2) and scaffolding situation (SS3) were the last in the series of
prediction by the Awareness and Beliefs factor. Having the Wald statistic as 4.128
and 3.939 respectively and model fit with an overall prediction of 81 % (p = 0.48)
and 72 % (p = .047), respectively. The probability of workers to continue working in
both situations was found to be 0.682 and 0.673, respectively.
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
85
Table 6.4 Logistic Regression Table Predicting Workers’ Behaviours through
Attitudes and Perception
The above mentioned seven situations, as stated earlier in Section 6.3.3, all were
perceived to be as of either medium risk or high risk (Refer to Figure 6.5), and thus
the majority of respondents indicated their preference to stop working when facing
such situations (refer Figure 6.6). Therefore, it was not surprising to see the
significant correlations of all these situations with the Awareness and Beliefs factor;
the logistic regression re-confirmed the results of the workers behavioural analysis.
It is worth noting that this factor contains items related to workers’ competence,
awareness, and self-perceived ability to work safely. In all seven situations, negative
95%Confidence
Interval for
EXP(B)
IVs
Behavioural
Situations
( DVs )
B S.E Wald df p Exp(B)
Lower Upper
SS-1 -.473 .215 4.845 1 .028 .623 .408 .949
SS-2 -.418 .199 4.416 1 .035 .658 .445 .972
SS-3 -.395 .199 3.939 1 .047 .673 .456 .995
LS-1 -.695 .324 4.601 1 .032 .499 .264 .941
LS-2 -.382 .188 4.128 1 .042 .682 .472 .986
LS-3 -.370 .178 4.340 1 .037 .691 .487 .979
RS-1 -1.915 .919 4.337 1 .037 .147 .024 .892
RS-2 .239 .357 .449 1 .503 1.270 .630 2.55
A
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s
a
n
d
B
e
l
i
e
f
s
(
F
A
C
-
1
)
RS-3 .199 .227 .771 1 .380 1.221 .781 1.90
SS-2 -.373 .736 .257 1 .612 .689 .162 2.91
SS-2 -.391 .182 4.615 1 .032 .676 .473 .966
SS-3 -.429 .199 4.647 1 .031 .651 .440 .961
LS-1 -.670 .327 4.198 1 .040 .511 .269 .971
LS-2 -.382 .185 4.263 1 .039 .682 .474 .980
LS-3 -.304 .173 3.098 1 .078 .738 .624 1.035
RS-1 -1.434 .715 4.022 1 .045 .239 .058 .967
RS-2 .191 .407 .220 1 .639 1.210 .545 2.68
P
h
y
s
i
c
a
l
W
o
r
k
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
(
F
A
C
-
2
)
RS-3 .178 .248 .517 1 .472 1.195 .734 1.94
SS-1 .244 1.010 .059 1 .809 1.277 .176 9.24
SS-2 -.280 .290 .926 1 .336 .755 .428 1.33
SS-3 -.280 .290 .926 1 .336 .755 .428 1.33
LS-1 -.686 .330 4.321 1 .037 .503 .263 .961
LS-2 -.074 .180 .169 1 .681 .929 .652 1.32
LS-3 -.399 .201 3.940 1 .047 .670 .452 .989
RS-1 -.053 .680 .006 1 .938 .948 .250 3.59
RS-2 .479 .191 6.317 1 .012 1.615 1.11 2.34
S
u
p
p
o
r
t
i
v
e
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
(
F
A
C
-
3
)
RS-3 .478 .193 6.118 1 .013 1.612 1.10 2.35
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
86
values for the B coefficient were obtained indicating that the higher the level of
workers’ awareness towards safety, the less likely they will continue working when
faced with a medium-to-high risk situation.
Behavioural situations RS2 and RS3 emerged as non-significant situations to be
predicted by the Awareness and Beliefs factor. Both situations had positive Beta
signs (B = .239 and .199) and much lower Wald statistics as compared to the rest of
the situations (Wald = .449 and .771). The odds ratio for these two particular
situations showed that the workers in these situations were more likely to continue
working, but the significance of such a prediction was very low (p = .503 & .380).
The second factor, Physical Work Environment, significantly predicted five of the
nine situations and showed significant correlations. The situations are as follows:
• Working with scaffolds with guard rails missing (SS2);
• Accessing scaffolds by climbing up and down (SS3);
• Working with ladders that are not tied (LS1);
• Working with ladders that are too short for the task being performed (LS2);
and
• Working on a fragile roof without crawling boards (RS1).
The two most obvious predictions by this factor were situations (SS3) and (SS2)
containing Wald statistic as (Wald = 4.647 and 4.615). The model fit for both
situations was significant with the overall prediction of the cases as 81 % and 63 %
respectively. Both of these situations had negative Beta signs (B = -.429 and -.391),
which implies that workers in (SS3) and in (SS2) are 0.651 and 0.675 times less
likely to continue working if faced with these two situations, respectively.
The three other predicted situations LS2, LS1, and RS1 had negative Beta sign (B =
-.38, -.670, and -1.434, respectively) with Wald statistic as (4.263, 4.198, 4.022).
These three situations, by virtue of their negative Beta signs and Exp (B) values can
be narrated as: the workers in these three situations are less likely to continue
working. For LS2 there is a 0.682 time less probability that the workers will
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
87
continue working. Workers in LS1 and RS1 situations are 0.511 and 0.239 times,
respectively, less likely to continue working. A sixth situation (LS3) was predicted
by this factor as well, but with moderate correlation (p = .078), having Wald statistic
as 3.098 and Exp (B) as 0.738. The items within this particular factor of physical
work environment demonstrate workers’ perception of the risk to which they are
exposed to on sites. Once again, the predicated negative B values depict that the
higher the perceived level of risk, the lower the chance that workers will continue
working. The model fit for these three predicted situations were found statistically
significance with LS2 (80 %, p = .042), LS1 (93 %, p = .050), and RS1 (84 %, p
= .051) overall prediction of the cases.
The third and last factor, Supportive Environment, showed significant correlations
with the following four situations:
• Working with ladders that are not tied (LS1);
• Using a broken or defective ladder (LS3);
• Working on roof without edge protection (RS2); and
• Working on roof in strong windy conditions (RS3).
The most obvious predicted situations by this factor by virtue of Wald statistic were
RS2 and RS3, having the Wald statistic value (6.317 and 6.118) and significance
values (p = .012 and p = .013), respectively. The correct overall predictions of the
cases for these two situations were found as 93 % and 90 % respectively. These two
situations were not predicted by any of the earlier two factors FAC-1 and FAC-2. As
mentioned earlier, these two situations appear to be encountered on a frequent basis
on sites, and were perceived by many workers as low-risk situations, thus workers
are more inclined not to stop working. The positive B values and odds ratio more
than 1, indicating that the higher the level of support given by peers (i.e. co-workers),
the higher the chance that workers will continue working. Comments that were
verbally made and freely added to the questionnaire provided insight into the
thinking of the respondents. For example, peer support might give rise to unsafe
work behaviour. To illustrate, considering situation RS3, a re-occurring voiced
opinion was:
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
88
“I would be labelled a coward if I do not follow my co-workers who continue to
work despite the strong windy conditions”.
The remaining two situations (LS1 and LS3) predicted by this factor had Wald
statistic values of 4.321 and 3.940, with significance value of p = .037 and p = .047
respectively. For these two situations, negative Beta values and odds ratio less than
1 was obtained. Workers with an odds ratio of 0.503 and 0.670, in both situations
respectively, have less probability to continue working in such situations.
It is interesting to see the same factor (Supportive Environment) predicted two
situations (RS2 and RS3) as with positive Beta with an odds ratio more than unity
(1), and two with negative Beta with odds ratio less than unity (1). As stated earlier
in this section, regarding the first two predicted situations of RS2 and RS3, that both
these situations were perceived as of low-risk by the workers and were encountered
on a frequent basis; thus the workers intended to continue working in such situations.
The last two predicted situations (LS1 and LS3) by this factor were perceived as of
medium-to-high risk by the workers and were encountered rarely on sites (refer to
Section 6.3.3); thus workers’ intentional behaviour was to stop working if they
encounter such situations.
6.5. Workers’ Cultural Analysis
The total gathered data from the third part of the questionnaire was also factor
analysed by using principle component analysis with varimax rotation to determine
the underlying dimensions of the national culture.
6.5.1. Factor Analysis
Again, in order to assess the suitability of data for factor analysis, all the checks
were performed same as detailed in Section 6.2.3. The test for the measuring of the
sampling adequacy (MAS) was conducted and, on the basis of results, one variable
had to be dropped before proceeding with further analyses. The variable, which
could not meet the standards of (MAS), was:
• Safety problems are openly discussed between workers and supervisors.
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
89
Again, the measure for sampling adequacy (MAS) test was conducted after deleting
the above variable. The results revealed that all the remaining variables had a good
sample adequacy, ranging from .58 to .97. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test
gave the value of .803 and Bartlett test of sphericity, reached statistical significance
with chi-square 7272.887, df = 276 and significance of 0.000. On the basis of such
results it was deemed fit to proceed with factor analysis.
Thus the 24 variables were included in the factor analysis, by conducting a principal
factor analysis. The results revealed the presence of three factors having an
eigenvalue of more than unity. The Varimax rotation was then performed so as to
obtain interpretable results for those three factors. This three-factor solution
accounted for 80 percent of the total variance. Factors were then examined to
identify the number of items that were loaded on each factor by keeping in mind the
rule for selecting only those items which had loadings equal to or more than 0.5
(Hair et al., 1998). On the basis of such restriction, thirteen, six and four items were
loaded on the first, second and third factor, respectively. One item had a factor
loading of .255 which was far less than the factor loading criteria as defined by Hair
et al. (1998) Therefore the following item was dropped:
• Workers lose respect for a supervisor, who seek their input before he makes
any safety decision.
Confirmatory factor analysis was carried out to assess the uni-dimensionality of the
scales developed using exploratory factor analysis (Gerbing and Anderson, 1988).
All thirteen items that were loaded on the first factor in exploratory factor analysis
were then put into the confirmatory factor analysis to confirm the existence of all
these 13 items in a single factor. Confirmatory factor analysis reconfirmed the
results of the exploratory factor analysis, by loading all items in a single factor.
Similarly, the results of confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the existence of the
second and third factor with six and four items, respectively, loading onto them.
Table 6.5 depicts the 23 items in three factors, and their respective factor loadings,
explained variances, eigenvalues and Cornbach’s α for three factors.
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
90
Table 6.5 Factor Loadings for the 3-factor model of Workers Cultural Survey
Factor 1: Collectivism & Femininity
(Variance = 48%, Eigenvalue = 11.399, Cronbach’s α = .771)
Loadings
Managers and supervisors do encourage feedback regarding safety issues from site workers
[.938]
Personally I enjoy the risk aspects associated with my job [.942]
I often feel nervous or tense at work [.909]
A company should have major responsibility for the health and welfare of its injured worker [.949]
Co-workers often give tips to each other on how to work safely [.901]
A safe place to work has a lot of personal meaning to me and my co-workers [.860]
It would help in improving the site safety, if my co-workers support safe behaviour [.942]
Safety training can help me in improving my attitude to work more safely
Safety decisions made by me alone are usually more effective than decisions made by my
co-workers together
[.783]
[.885]
It is not always important to have a good working relationship with my supervisor [-.849]
When workers ignore safety procedures at my workplace, I feel it is none of my business [-.867]
I will not change my attitude towards safety rules, even if my supervisor praises safe work
behaviour
[-.856]
I prefer the company having higher pay rates but lower safety records to the company having
better safety records but average pay rates [.956]
Factor 2: Uncertainty Avoidance
(Variance = 18%, Eigenvalue = 4.461, Cronbach’s α = .792)
Major decisions regarding site safety issues, always take place after consulting with site
workers/subcontractors
[.670]
Generally workers follow safety rules without being told to do so [.784]
Safety rules should not be broken, even when a worker believes it affects the production [.852]
Safety decisions made by the management usually seems to be more effective then decisions
made by workers
[.817]
Many accidents just happen, there is little one can do to avoid them [.826]
I prefer to work with larger company as they have more effective safety practices on site than
the smaller one
[.865]
Factor 3: Power Distance
(Variance = 14%, Eigenvalue = 3.517, Cronbach’s α = .701)
I am always encouraged to raise any safety concern with my supervisor [.895]
Workers are always being consulted regarding preparation of site safety plans [.661]
I am allowed to act decisively if I find any situation contrary to safe conditions on site [.886]
I prefer the company having less strict rules and where I easy to work with, to the company
having more strict rules and long working hours.
[.771]
6.5.2. Factors Interpretation
Each of the three factors was labelled in accordance with the set of individual items
loaded onto it. The first factor was labelled “Collectivism and Femininity”. This
factor contained thirteen items describing the themes referring to the collectivism
and femininity of the workers.
In the questionnaire, workers were given six items posed to measure Collectivism
VS. Individualism and seven items addressing the issue of Femininity VS.
Masculinity. The descriptive analysis results show that workers believe, and have
faith, in carrying out their construction operations safely on sites more collectively
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
91
rather than individually. The mean values for these items ranged from 1.5 to 2.2.,
where 1 = strong agreement, and 5 = strong disagreement. It was expected to have
these two measures in separate factors. However, as stated earlier, exploratory factor
analysis loaded all these 13 items of two different, but related, cultural dimensions
together; moreover confirmatory factor analysis also confirmed the same. Therefore,
the factor was given a shared label as of “Collectivism and Femininity”. A similar
experience was reported by Hofstede (1985), where items representing power
distance and individualism were loaded on the same factor in his factor analysis.
Although these two dimensions were highly correlated, Hofstede felt that these two
dimensions were completely distinct and thus inappropriate to combine. He justified
his decision to separate those dimensions on three grounds:
1. That the statistical correlation disappears when the analysis is controlled for
countries’ economic wealth;
2. That the two dimensions are conceptually different ; and
3. That even though most collectivistic cultures are also high in power distance,
this is not always the case, as for example France or Costa Rica
(Hofstede,1984,1985).
Hofstede’s decision to separate individualism–collectivism and power distance
attracted a few criticism as well (Bond, 1996; Erez and Early, 1993; Triandies et al.,
1988). Bond (1996) criticised, Hofstede’s decision, arguing that “…had Hofsetde
not split power distance and individualism, it might have reduced the tendency to
reify these constructs as separate and have simplified our search for external
correlates of the unified concept” (p.13) Thus, because of these criticism and also
the present PhD research study was to explore “inter-culture” not “cross-culture”
influence, therefore it was decided to keep “Collectivism and Femininity” as one
combined factor. Having collectivism and femininity as one combined factor
indicates that cultural dimensions can and do overlap. A dimension is not an
isolatable unit, but dependent upon the other dimensions.
In the work environment context, collectivism can be measured by; working in
cohesive groups, workers giving safety tips to each other, and combining efforts to
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
92
make physical work environment safer. Femininity in the context of the work
environment can be defined as: the degree of co-operation, the nature of working
relationship, and employment security. This is complementary to collectivism,
where the society tends to integrate people into cohesive working groups. A
combination of collectivism and femininity leads to “Moralism”, where the focus is
shifted from following rigid rules to more interpersonal relationships. These
relationships then lead to enhancing workers safety awareness and beliefs which, in
turn, results into safe work behaviour.
The second factor, “Uncertainty Avoidance”, contained six items addressing this
particular theme. Workers’ responses to these items showed a good perception of
both safe and unsafe conditions, and the majority of them are prone towards more
uncertainty avoidance. This finding confirms the earlier findings of this study’s
workers’ behavioural survey, where most respondents opted for stopping work in
what is perceived as risky situations.
The third factor gathered all those items which were posed to measure the power
distance between the workers and managers. Therefore, this factor was named,
accordingly, as “Power Distance”. The responses to these items revealed that the
majority of workers do not see much power distance between themselves and the
management whenever safety-related issues need to be discussed and/or actions to
be implemented.
6.6. Prediction of Workers Intentional Behaviour through
Cultural Dimensions
To predict workers’ behaviour through their national culture or to explore the
influence of workers national culture on their safe/unsafe behaviour, binary logistic
regression was used. As mentioned in Section 6.4.1, the rationale for adopting such
multivariate technique was due to the binary nature of our dependent variable
“behaviour”. In the behavioural questionnaire, workers were asked only for their two
intentional behaviours. In any given situation, will they “continue” or “stop”
working? Therefore, binary logistic regression was deemed fit in such type of
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
93
prediction. The detailed introduction to this technique has already been discussed
previously in Section 6.4.1.
6.6.1. Bonferroni Type Adjustment
Bonferroni type adjustment was carried out on this analysis as well. Same as the
previous analysis of binary logistic regression there were nine (9) dependent
variables (DVs) and, by default, the alpha level was set on 0.05; therefore the overall
alpha level, according to the above stated equation, would be 0.370, which is above
the 0.05. Therefore the alpha level for each DV was set as 0.005, thus the overall
alpha was as 0.047, which comes under the acceptability level of 0.05.
6.6.2. Assessment of Overall Model Fit
Table 6.6 details the summary of the assessment of model fit for 27 models,
obtained in logistic regression of cultural dimensions (3 IVs) and workers
behavioural situations (9 DVs). This table includes chi-square values along with
their level of significance (p), Nagelkerke R-Square values, and overall prediction of
classification tables.
Table 6.6 Summary of Logistic Regression Models Fit
Logistic
Models
Chi-square p
Nagelkerke
R-Sqaure
Percentage of
cases correctly
predicted
1 (SS1) 4.163 .041 0.60 97
2 (SS2) 3.834 .050 0.70 61
3 (SS3) 3.834 .050 0.70 71
4 (LS1) 4.136 .042 0.62 91
5 (LS2) 3.777 .052 0.39 81
6 (LS3) 3.777 .052 0.42 62
7 (RS1) 4.342 .037 0.60 65
8 (RS2) 0.053 .818 0.49 88
C
o
l
l
e
c
t
i
v
i
s
m
&
F
e
m
i
n
i
n
i
t
y
(
F
A
C
-
1
)
9 (RS3) 3.427 .064 0.47 82
1 (SS1) 4.475 .034 0.59 97
2 (SS2) 4.285 .038 0.60 62
3 (SS3) 4.220 .040 0.55 72
4 (LS1) 4.222 .041 0.50 96
5 (LS2) 5.788 .016 0.57 71
6 (LS3) 3.839 .050 0.60 59
7 (RS1) 4.136 .042 0.71 95
8 (RS2) 0.123 .726 0.75 93
U
n
c
e
r
t
a
i
n
t
y
A
v
o
i
d
a
n
c
e
(
F
A
C
-
2
)
9 (RS3) 1.976 .160 0.71 81
1 (SS1) 1.408 .235 0.37 97
2 (SS2) 1.867 .172 0.55 57
3 (SS3) 1.867 .172 0.60 61
4 (LS1) 1.867 .172 0.70 93
5 (LS2) 1.714 .190 0.65 71
6 (LS3) 0.204 .651 0.55 58
7 (RS1) 0.051 .479 0.81 98
8 (RS2) 0.143 .705 0.49 93
P
o
w
e
r
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
(
F
A
C
-
3
)
9 (RS3) 1.388 .239 0.71 83
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
94
6.6.3. National Cultural Dimensions Influencing Workers Behaviour
Table 6.7 details the results of the binary logistic regression along with Exp (B)
values. The first two cultural dimensions “Collectivism and Femininity” and
“Uncertainty avoidance” predicted seven and six behavioural situations,
respectively. The third cultural dimension, “Power Distance”, did not predict any of
the behavioural situations at all.
Table 6.7 Results of Logistic Regression for Workers Culture factors and
Behavioural Situations
95%Confidence
Interval for
EXP(B)
IVs
Behavioural
Situations
(DVs)
B S.E Wald df p Exp(B)
Lower Upper
SS1 -.418 .199 4.416 1 .035 .658 .445 .972
SS2 -.400 .202 3.928 1 .047 .670 .451 .995
SS3 -.400 .202 3.928 1 .047 .670 .451 .995
LS1 -.382 .185 4.263 1 .029 .682 .474 .980
LS2 -.263 .123 4.534 1 .033 .249 .604 .978
LS3 -.521 .255 4.172 1 .041 .604 .360 .979
RS1 -.431 .199 4.699 1 .030 .650 .439 .959
RS2 -.089 .399 .050 1 .823 1.093 .418 1.94
C
o
l
l
e
c
t
i
v
i
s
m
&
F
e
m
i
n
i
n
i
t
y
RS3 -.573 .376 2.318 1 .128 1.774 .269 1.17
SS1 -.473 .215 4.845 1 .028 .623 .408 .949
SS2 -.695 .324 4.601 1 .032 .499 .264 .941
SS3 -.427 .198 4.650 1 .031 .665 .442 .961
LS1 -.777 .370 4.419 1 .036 .463 .222 .949
LS2 -.401 .193 4.288 1 .038 .669 .458 .977
LS3 -.343 .178 3.729 1 .053 .709 .500 1.00
RS1 -.382 .185 4.263 1 .039 .682 .474 .980
RS2 .132 .381 .120 1 .729 1.141 .540 2.40
U
n
c
e
r
t
a
i
n
t
y
A
v
o
i
d
a
n
c
e
RS3 -.325 2.31 1.970 1 .160 .723 .007 .709
SS1 -1.823 2.200 .687 1 .407 .162 .002 .655
SS2 -.377 .225 2.806 1 .094 .694 .441 1.06
SS3 -.375 .225 2.776 1 .096 .684 .441 1.06
LS1 -.377 .225 2.806 1 .094 .694 .441 1.06
LS2 -.286 .176 2.635 1 .105 .751 .532 1.06
LS3 -.077 .171 .205 1 .651 .925 .662 1.29
RS1 -.807 1.528 .279 1 .598 .446 .022 8.19
RS2 -.126 .323 .152 1 .696 .881 .468 1.66
P
o
w
e
r
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
RS3 -.244 .200 1.478 1 .224 .784 .529 1.15
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
95
The first national cultural dimension predicted seven out of nine behavioural
situations. The predicted situations were:
• Working with scaffolds, which are not totally boarded (SS1)
• Working with scaffolds with guard rails missing (SS2)
• Accessing scaffolds by climbing up and down (SS3)
• Working with ladders that are not tied (LS1)
• Working with ladders that are too short for the task being performed (LS2)
• Using a broken or defective ladder (LS3)
• Working on a fragile roof without crawling boards (RS1)
Again, according to the Wald statistic, the most obvious predicted behavioural
situation by this factor was situation (RS1) (W = 4.699). The model for this
prediction was found statistically significant with an overall percentage of prediction
for the cases as 65 % at significance level (p) of 0.037 (refer to Table 6.5). Workers
in this situation are 0.650 times less likely to continue working if facing this
situation. The negative sign of Beta (B= -.431) shows that the more they work
collectively and towards the feminist attitude the less chance they will continue
working. The second most obvious behavioural situation predicted by this factor was
(SS1) with Wald statistic as 4.416. For this given situation, workers are 0.658 times
less likely to continue working. This situation again had a negative Beta value (B= -
.418) and the model fit for this particular prediction was found statistically
significant with 97 % of the overall prediction of the cases (refer to Table 6.5). The
third predicted situation was the ladder situation (LS1). The model fit for this
prediction came as of 91 % with a statistically significance level of 0.041. This
situation contained Wald statistic as 4.263 and beta as negative (B = -.382),
indicating that the workers in this particular situation has 0.682 times less
probability to continue working. Ladder situations (LS3) and (LS2) were predicted
as the 4th and 5th influential, respectively (W = 4.172 & W = 4.022) with overall
model prediction as 62 % and 81 %, respectively. Both situations had negative Beta
values as well (B = -.521 & B = -1.434, respectively).
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
96
The significance of the influence of the factor of Collectivism and Femininity for
scaffolding situations (SS2) and (SS3) were found to be similar (p=. 047), with same
Wald statistic value as 3.928. Both situations had a negative influence on the
probability of continuing with the work. For both situations workers are 0.670 times
less likely to continue working, if those particular situations happen to them. The
statistical significance of the model fit, with overall prediction for these two
situations, came as 61 % and 71 %. Thus we can say that the higher the collectivistic
and feminist attitude of the workers, the higher is the probability that workers would
avoid continuing to work in risky situations.
The second cultural dimension predicted six behavioural situations. They were:
• Working with scaffolds, which are not totally boarded (SS1);
• Working with scaffolds with guard rails missing (SS2);
• Accessing scaffolds by climbing up and down (SS3);
• Working with ladders that are not tied (LS1);
• Working with ladders that are too short for the task being performed (LS2);
and
• Working on a fragile roof without crawling boards (RS1).
The most influential situation predicted by this factor was situation (SS1). It had a
Wald statistic of 4.845 at a significance level of 0.028. The model for this situation
was statistically significant with overall prediction for the cases to be 97 % at the
significance level of 0.034 (refer to Table 6.5). For this particular situation, workers
were 0.658 times more likely to stop working if that situation happens to them. The
negative sign of Beta again depicts that the higher uncertainty avoidance among the
workers the less they are going to continue working. The second most influential
situation was situation (SS3) with a model fit prediction of 72 %. This situation had
a Wald value of 4.650 and a negative Beta sign at the significance level of 0.031.
The third situation on the prediction sequence was situation (SS2). The workers in
this situation were 0.499 times less likely to continue working with having a Wald
statistic value of 4.601 at the 0.032 significance level (p). Again, the negative sign of
Beta can be interpreted as, the higher degree of uncertainty workers have, the more
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
97
inclined they are to stop working. Ladder situations (LS1) and (LS2) were also
predicted by the uncertainty avoidance factor. LS1 had a Wald value of 4.419 at
0.036 level of significance and LS2 had 4.288 as the Wald value with .038 level of
significance. Both of these situations have negative Beta sign. The last two predicted
situations were roof situation (RS1) and ladder situation (LS3). The Wald and
significance values for these situations were (4.263, 0.039) and (3.729, 0.053),
respectively.
The third and last cultural dimension of “Power Distance” did not predict any of the
given behavioural situations. This implies that, when it comes to workers’ decision
in risky situations, cultural dimensions of “Uncertainty Avoidance and “Collectivism
and Femininity” play an important and significant role in deciding their intentional
behaviour, rather then power distance.
The following two situations were not predicted by any of the cultural dimension;
• Working on roof without edge protection (RS2); and
• Working on roof in strong windy conditions (RS3)
It is worth noting here the same two behavioural situations were positively predicted
by one of the factors of workers’ attitude and perception “Supportive Environment”
only. The positive prediction depicts that the more supportive environment for
workers. The more they will continue working in the above mentioned situations. It
was concluded for such a prediction, in Section 6.4.5, that peer support might give
rise to unsafe work behaviour, thus creating an impression of negative team work
outcomes. For behavioural prediction through workers’ cultural dimension, it was
expected that the cultural dimension of “Collectivism and Femininity” might predict
these two situations, thus confirming that workers can behave negatively when they
work collectively. As mentioned earlier, none of the workers’ cultural dimensions
predicted either of these two situations. This finding demonstrates that, in these
situations, workers’ behaviour to continue working might be because of the
formation of the team they belong to. Turner and Parker (2004) demonstrate three
possibilities which can lead to the negative outcomes. According to them, one
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
98
possibility is that work characteristics might be negatively affected, which could
then impinge on safety. The second possibility for the negative effect of teamwork
could be the potential negative effects on the team process. The third possibility
could be the composition of the team. Sometimes it is possible that introducing
teams within diverse workplaces might negatively affect the group processes
(Turner and Parker, 2004). Therefore it could be concluded that teamwork does not
necessarily mean, working “Collectively”. Collectivism in cultural literature has
been clearly defined as a phenomenon which places high priority on the
maintenance of harmonious group working relationships (Hofstede, 1980). Hofstede,
further implementing collectivism in the workplace narrates that in collectivistic
society, the workplace itself may become an in-group in the emotional sense. The
relationship between a worker and its co-workers is seen in moral terms.
6.7. Relationship between Workers’ Attitudes, Perceptions and
Cultural Dimensions
As in previous sections, two statistical analyses were carried out in order to predict:
• Intentional behaviour through workers’ perceptions and attitudes (Section
6.4); and
• Workers’ Intentional behaviour through their cultural dimensions
(Section 6.6)
Sections 6.4 and 6.6 statistically depicted that workers’ intentional behaviour can be
predicted by their attitudes, perceptions and by cultural dimensions. Therefore, it
was felt necessary to explore the relationship between identified cultural dimensions
(Collectivism & Femininity, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Power Distance), and
workers’ perceptions and attitudes factors (Awareness and Beliefs, Physical Work
Environment, and Supportive Environment).
A Pearson correlation test was carried out in order to explore the linear relationship
between the above-mentioned national cultural dimensions and the workers’
attitudinal factors. The Pearson correlation results revealed strong linear correlations
between cultural dimensions and workers’ attitudes and perceptions. Table 6.8
details the values of Pearson correlations along with their associated significance
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
99
values (p). National culture dimension of Collectivism and Femininity (COL and
FEM) showed strong positive correlations with two attitudinal factors of;
“Awareness and Beliefs” and “Physical Work Environment”.
The strong positive relationship with both of the two attitudinal factors depicts that
the more that dominant collectivism and femininity nature exist in workers attitude,
the more they will be aware of safety issues by identifying and communicating
safety issues among themselves. The results of the descriptive analysis of the
workers’ cultural questionnaire relating to the measurement of collectivism and
femininity have revealed that workers’ attitudes tend towards collectivism rather
than individualism and also towards femininity rather than masculinity.
Therefore, the presence of such a strong positive correlation is not surprising at all;
workers tend to be more supportive in sharing and conveying safety concern issues
so as to help each other and also because the majority of the workers tend to stop
working when faced with a perceived risky situation.
The second cultural dimension of Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) showed a strong
correlation with “Awareness and Beliefs” and with “Physical Environment”, and a
relatively less strong correlation with the third attitudinal factor “Supportive
Environment”. The direction of these relationships was again positive, thus,
depicting that, if workers are more safety aware and have a strong belief in safety
issues, the higher would be their uncertainty avoidance.
The third and last cultural dimension of Power Distance (PD) showed a negative
correlation with the attitudinal factor of “Awareness and Beliefs” only with
significance value (p) of 0.044 and Pearson correlation value as -0.606. Though it
did not show any statistically significance with the other two workers’ perception
and attitude’ factors, but the Pearson correlation values for “Physical work
Environment” (0.588) and “Supportive Environment” (0.555) were not too different
from the Pearson correlation value of “Awareness and Beliefs”. The negative
correlation between Power Distance and Awareness and Beliefs can be interpreted
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
100
as the more power distance between workers and management, the less will be the
workers’ awareness and beliefs in regarding safety issues.
Table 6.8 Correlations between Workers' Attitudes Perceptions and Cultural
Dimensions
6.8. Conclusion
There is a growing general recognition that construction workers’ attitudes towards
safety are influenced by their perceptions of risk, management, safety rules and
procedures. An examination of the literature suggests that a positive correlation
exists between such perceptions and workers’ safe behaviour. However, the
literature review showed that little work had been carried out to explore such
correlations in a developing country’s setting.
Respondents, on average, tended towards a good degree of risk awareness and self-
rated competence, and a relatively high degree of safety awareness. The work
experience an individual has seems to positively influence their perception of risk.
However, a minority of workers do misperceive risks attached to a number of
situations and thus could be exposing themselves and other co-workers to risks due
to their misperception. Overall, workers’ intentional behaviour seems to be best
explained by workers’ attitudes towards their own and management safety
responsibilities, as well as their perception of the risk they are generally exposed to
in their workplace environment.
Perceived differences in safety climate dimensions between and within groups of
organizations have been examined in previous studies (Budworth, 1997; Glendon
Col & FEM UA PD
Pearson Correlation .880 .796 -.606
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .018 .044 Awareness & Beliefs
N 140 140 140
Pearson Correlation .896 .783 .588
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .024 .081
Physical Work
Environment
N
140 140 140
Pearson Correlation .426 .519 .555
Sig. (2-tailed) .078 .057 .604
Supportive
Environment
N
140 140 140
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
101
and Litherland, 2001; Mason and Simpson, 1995). In this doctoral study, the
different trades of the workers were tested with attitude and perception factors to
evaluate the statistically significant differences of perception factors within those
trades. The test of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) demonstrated scaffolders
to be in higher agreement with their two perception factors: Awareness and Beliefs,
and Supportive Environment. It is worth noting here, that the majority of the
scaffolders in their interview clearly mentioned their trade as being dangerous in
terms of safety and health. The reasons provided by them related to the site and their
quality of work. Also when the job is completed they are the last on site removing
the scaffolding from the structure. As mentioned earlier in Section 4.3, the
scaffolding trade is considered as “specialized” in terms of job technicality and also
availability of relevant workforce from specific parts of the country. This lack of
availability of a workforce makes scaffolding a monopolized trade, where usually
the workers belong to either the same family or tribe. Therefore scaffolders are less
threatened by their co-workers in terms of job security, preferring to work in a
supportive environment.
In summary, it was very encouraging to identify such a positive attitude towards
safety among the sample. Prevalent attitudes are that the workers: are well aware of
the risk associated with their job; do not find working with a certain amount of risk
exciting; believe in having shared responsibility and in maintaining good working
relationships to prevent accidents; are confident about their ability to identify
hazards; and do generally trust management. Contrary to the notion that construction
workers in many developing countries are in favour of a fearless attitude (i.e. the
tendency to perceive accidents as unavoidable, and thus, a negative attitude towards
accident prevention measures), respondents, on average, tended towards a good
degree of risk awareness and self-rated competence, and a relatively high degree of
safety awareness.
Pakistani culture is characterized as distinct (Khilji, 1999). In this study the first
three cultural dimensions were found to be similar to those in the study of Hofstede
(1980), Khilji (1999) and Islam (2004), except for the dimension of power distance.
The majority of workers denied the feeling of the existence of power distance
Chapter6
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
102
between them and the management. This particular difference can be attributed to
one specific reason. The items through which the attempt was made to measure the
power distance were addressed through safety issues so as to know what type of
power distance prevails on construction sites, not at the head office level. Therefore
it can be assumed that when there is a matter of safety concern, the stronger
perception workers have regarding their safety, the more open is the management to
discuss safety issues with them or vice-versa. The cultural analysis reported in this
chapter provides strong evidence that Pakistani workers are more collective, feminist,
believe in less power distance and opt for higher uncertainty avoidance in their
safety attitudes.
The binary logistic analysis predicted workers’ cultural dimensions of “Collectivism
and Femininity” and “Uncertainty Avoidance” as the influential predictors of
workers’ safe behaviour. The results again support this study’s finding of workers
behavioural analysis, which showed workers’ attitudes lean more towards
uncertainty avoidance so as to be safer. The third cultural dimension of “Power
Distance” failed to predict any of the workers’ behaviour; this finding also confirms
the findings of the workers’ cultural analysis, that they do not find or perceive much
power distance with management, therefore their behaviour is not affected by that
particular cultural dimension at all. Look again at into the definition of power
distance, “power distance relates both to autocracy and the willingness to tolerate
differences in power”. This definition identifies that, as is the case of Pakistan with
higher power distance, the workers more willingly accept and expect power distance
from their managerial staff. Islam (2004), in his study on administrative culture in
Pakistan reports, that workers do expect power distance with their boss, or else they
do not appreciate his/her administration. Thus it can be then concluded that,
although there might be the power distance within a construction organisation,
workers themselves expect such an attitude, and thus for them it is a fact of life.
The Pearson correlation analysis of the interrelationship between workers’ attitude
and perceptions and national culture revealed that workers, working in a more
collective, feminist, and higher uncertainty avoidance environment, are more likely
to have safety awareness and beliefs and thus exhibit safer behaviour.
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
103
Chapter 7
Managers Survey Analysis & Results
This chapter is dedicated to detailing the data-analysis procedures and results, along
with tables and graphs, obtained from the two managers’ surveys (MS-I and MS-II).
7.1. Background Information
As mentioned earlier in Chapter Five, two different surveys were conducted to
explore management safety practices and cultural trends in management. A total of
100 structured interviews were conducted with managers representing eleven (11)
construction companies across eight (8) sites using safety management surveys I and
II (MS-I and MS-II)), and 130 interviews were conducted using cultural survey
(MCS). It is also mentioned earlier in section 5.2.2.1.2 under the heading of
management survey, that MS-II was the summary of MS-I questionnaire. The aim of
developing MS-II was to counter check the respondents responses of MS-I. A
statistical requirement for carrying out factor analysis requires the minimum ratio of
five to each variable to be analysed. MS-II contained 14 variables, thus getting
responses of 100 was deemed fit for the analysis, as the sample size went well above
the threshold. The same procedure was adopted for the NC survey. NC survey
contained 25 variables, thus due to the statistical requirement for factor analysis on
NC survey, 100 sample size was not enough. Therefore in addition of 100 responses,
thirty (30) more responses were sought, so as to reach the threshold requirement for
factor analysis. Figure 7.1 below provides a breakdown of the total personnel
interviewed (130). The following sections of this chapter will present and discuss
each survey, its analysis and results, in detail.
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
104
Differnet Management Personnel
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Project Manager/
Project Director
Project Engineer Site Engineer Site supervisor
No. of Managers' Interviewed (N = 130)
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Figure 7.1 Professional Breakdown of Personnel Interviewed
7.1.1. T-Test for Independent Groups
Before proceeding to the formal descriptive analysis of MS-I and MS-II, it was
deemed fit to perform a T-test between the managers’ sample of 100. It was
hypothesized that, as in the sample of managers, there must be a difference of
opinion between qualified engineers, such as project managers, project directors,
project engineers and site engineers and those working as site supervisors (as the
majority of site supervisors are promoted or appointed from the workers rank on the
basis of their relevant technical experience and their managerial attitude). Therefore,
considering qualified engineers as one group and site supervisors as another, a T-test
was performed. The result showed no difference in the opinions between these two
groups, thus allowing the author, without any hesitation, to combine these two
hypothesized groups as a single one group.
7.1.2. Working Experience
The majority of interviewed managers had a good deal of working experience. Out
of 130 management staff interviewed: 27 (21 %) had more than 20 years; 34 (26 %)
had more than 15 years, 25 (19 %) had more than 10 years; 22 (17 %) more than 5
years; and 22 (17 %) 5 years or less, construction experience. (Refer to Figure 7.2
for a graphical distribution of manager’s construction experience.)
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
105
No. of Managers Int erviewed (N=130)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0~5 6~10 11~15 16~20 20+
Years
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Figure 7.2 Manager’s Construction Experience in Years
7.1.3. Safety Training
From the interviews, it was observed that very few managers had the opportunity to
receive proper safety training. As depicted in Figure 7.3 below, out of 130 subjects
interviewed: 73 (56 %) had no formal safety training at all; 22 (17 %) had half a day;
27 (21 %) had a full day; and only 8 (6 %) had two days or more. (Refer to Figure
7.3 for graphical distribution of training days received). The majority of the subjects
referred to the training they had as generic and basic. Only seven (7) managers had
safety training certificates, such as the Abu-Dhabi Company for onshore oil
operation Health, Safety and Environment (ADCO-HSE) certified course, or
diploma courses in health and safety. It is worth mentioning here that two (2) out of
these seven (7) managers were working as project managers by virtue of their
twenty or more years of international and local industry experience. Two (2) out of
those remaining five (5) had twelve years experience working both internationally
and locally. The remaining three (3) managers were working as project engineers
and had more than fifteen years of construction experience.
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
106
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Nil Half day Full day Two days or more
Number of Safet y Training Days
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Figure 7.3 Graphical Distribution of Managers Safety Training Received
7.2. Manager’s Safety Practices
The author carried out interviews targeting managers’ safety practices at each of the
eight (8) selected sites. Gathered data involved both qualitative and quantitative
measures of the key features of the safety management systems. This section
provides an overview of the qualitative data whereas Section 7.3 discusses, in detail,
the results for the quantitative analysis.
7.2.1. Safety Plan
It is worth mentioning here that the term “Existence of safety plans” as understood
by the “Interviewer” and “Interviewee” as a proper written, comprehensive clear
plan of action addressing the problems of the site. The survey results revealed a very
low level of available organisational safety plans that allow managers to monitor and
audit safety performance. The majority of survey respondents were of the opinion
that their organisations do not have printed and published safety documents at the
organisation level. However, they did indicate the existence of site safety plans at
the site level, which, according to them, may not meet international safety and health
standards, but are being effectively implemented on the sites. Surprisingly, out of
the eight (8) sites, only two had proper documented site safety plans. These two sites
were operated by one company which specialises in providing project management,
engineering, construction and maintenance services. On these two sites the managers
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
107
briefed the author about the regular monitoring of safety activities and the incentives
schemes they implement to promote safety activities.
7.2.2. Safety Competence/Training
Managers seem to have little interest in using safety competence as a criterion for
selecting and recruiting construction workers. However, managers of two out of the
eight sites reported having a recruiting policy for workers, managers and
subcontractors that refers to safety competence. These two sites are being operated
by the same company as mentioned earlier, and it pays attention to safety
competence when recruiting operators for special tasks, such as crane operators.
This particular company was found to organise mandatory safety induction and
periodical one-day programmes for its workers. In contrast, the managers
representing the rest of the companies reported the lack of such programmes. Some
of them also reported that, as they themselves have done some basic training in
safety, though a long time ago, they try hard to train their staff on some occasions.
As noted earlier, many of the project managers and project engineers had relevant
working experience, either working with some foreign company or overseas,
therefore they are aware of the importance of such training and they wanted to do
the “right thing” for their workers, but budget restrictions did not allow them to do
so.
7.2.3. Safety Monitoring
The majority of the managers reported having some level of monitoring systems for
safety on site, which usually included hazard, incident and accident reporting.
According to the majority of the managers their monitoring systems might not be up
to the international site safety monitoring standards or they might not be using
proper safety monitoring channels. However they again indicated that they prefer to
use conventional and simple safety monitoring channels and to their belief
monitoring systems are working effectively and fine. At two different sites –
operated by the same company – a flow chart depicting clearly the process of safety
monitoring and accident reporting was sighted. During discussions, it was made
clear to the author that managers believe workers feel reluctant to report hazards or
incidents on their own, until they are reminded again and again to do so. This
complaint, when cross-referenced with workers to find out the reason for that
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
108
attitude, was flatly denied by many of them. However, a fear of the penalty of being
laid off from the job, and a lack of trust between the managers and workers were
common explanations given by some workers. When such reasons were fed back to
managers, they had a very different view. The managers partially agreed in the lack
of trust factors. Nevertheless, to show how much they were committed to reduce that
alleged mistrust situation, managers quoted some of the following examples:
• Introduction of safety awards for the employees;
• Introduction of hazard detection awards; and
• Delegation of few administrative powers to site supervisors (i.e. leave
authorizations, advance wage payments up to a certain amount, and medical
cost up to certain amount). As these site supervisors are usually promoted
from the workers cadre to the supervision (management) cadre, on the basis
of their experience and discipline, workers feel free to contact them directly
and discuss private issues.
A site manager, while denying the mistrust concept said:
“When any of the workers gets even a minor injury or cut, even due to his own
negligence, he straight away runs to us for help. If there would have been any
mistrust situation, then why they do not think of that before they approach us. To
them it might be a minor injury but to us it would be a near miss”.
7.2.4. Safety Communication
Management on all eight (8) sites appeared to be relying on informal channels to
communicate safety matters. They rely heavily on individual briefings to
communicate safety messages, as this one-to-one approach was considered more
reliable and effective. Only two sites reported having informal safety meetings on a
regular basis, and also the incorporation of poster campaigns.
7.2.5. Safety Co-operation
Effective working relationships especially, on safety issues, were reported by
managerial staff, between the main contractor (its operatives) and the different
subcontractors. Managerial staff appointed by sub-contractors also validated the
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
109
effective level of co-operation. It was strongly believed that the main contractor is
always responsible for safety issues on the site, whether they are legally bound or
not through a contract. One of the site representatives confirmed that their main
contractor was always ready to take-up his responsibilities for safety issues, and to
show his commitment towards safety through the distribution of safety helmets, hard
boots and safety signs.
7.2.6. Suggestions for Improvement
The following suggestions were provided by the interviewed managers to achieve an
overall improvement of safety and health conditions in local construction sites:
Establishing an independent health and safety monitoring agency or national
safety and health council as an effective organisation, having a broad
mandate for:
o establishing current states of the safety and health conditions in the
local construction industry and then benchmarking it with
international standards;
o proposing the relevant technical, legal and voluntary standards and
codes of practice;
Developing Construction Safety laws and regulations;
Establishing commitments from the Federal Government to:
o enforce safety regulations;
o run national campaigns for wide publicity and public awareness;
o provide obligatory safety training through provincial labour
departments; and
o allocate funds for promotion of awareness, training, information
dissemination and research in occupational safety and health issues.
Introducing new safety clauses to the company registration forms for
Pakistan Engineering Council (PEC);
Asking all enterprises to engage/employ a safety, health and environment
officer. The minimum qualifications for such an officer should be prescribed
in the law;
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
110
Encouraging the government to establish Occupational Safety and Health
(OSH) consultancy businesses and develop operational criteria for these
businesses;
Encouraging local universities to introduce Diploma, MSc and PhD level
programmes in OSH disciplines to prepare a professionally trained cadre of
manpower in the country. The government and industry should sponsor such
educational and training programmes at least for the next five (5) years. The
national OSH Council should also work to promote OSH education and
training in the country;
Introducing severe penalties for some safety breaches occurring at
organizational levels;
Improving management commitment to safety at organizational levels; and
Increasing client and designer influence over safety issues.
7.3. Factors Analysis
The data gathered from the MSII survey was factor analyzed by using the principle
component analysis with Varimax rotation. In order to assess the suitability of data
for the factor analysis all the appropriate checks were performed, as mentioned in
Section 6.2.3.3. The sample size of the managers for this analysis was 100, with the
ratio of 7.1 cases to 1 variable, being well above the minimum permissible limits
(Hair et al., 1998). The test for measuring sampling adequacy (MSA) was conducted,
showing 12 out of a total of 14 variables within the adequacy limits of 0.5 or above.
Two variables were found to be short of the limit, therefore it was deemed fit to
eliminate them from further analyses. The eliminated two variables are:
• Main contractor takes all responsibility for the safety duties and rights of all
site staff.
• Sub contractors’ employees follow all safety related decisions made
independently by the main contractor.
Again the measure for the sampling adequacy (MSA) test was conducted after
deleting the above two variables. The results of the second time test revealed that all
the remaining variables had good sample adequacy ranging from .60 to .87. The
KMO test gave the value of .798 and the Bartlett test of sphericity reached statistical
significance with chi-square 2372.887 and significance level of 0.000. On the basis
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
111
of such results it was deemed fit to proceed with conducting the principle factor
analysis using the remaining 12 variables.
The results revealed the presence of two distinct factors having an eigenvalue of
more than unity. A Varimax rotation was then performed to obtain interpretable
results for those two factors. The two-factor solution accounted for 82 percent of the
total variance. Factors were then examined to identify the number of items that
loaded on each factor by keeping in mind the rule for selecting only those items
which have got the loadings equal to or more than 0.5 (Hair et al.,1998).
On the basis of such restrictions, seven items were loaded on the first factor and
accounted for 63% of the total variance, and five items were loaded on the second
factor and accounted for 19% for the total variance. Table 7.1 depicts the 12 items in
two factors, and their respective factor loadings, explained variances, eigenvalues
and Cornbach’s α for two factors.
Table 7.1 Factor Loadings for the 2-factor model of Managers’ Safety Practices
Factor 1: Strategic Loadings
(Variance = 63%, Eigenvalue = 7.528, Cronbach’s α = .944)
The company has a highly effective safety plan for site.
[.738]
The company has safety related criteria for worker’s recruitment. [.826]
The company has safety related criteria for managers and supervisors recruitment. [.755]
The company has safety related criteria for sub-contractors selection. [.787]
The company has highly effective training programme for workers. [.872]
The company has highly effective training program for managers and supervisors. [.860]
There is high level of cooperation between main contractor and different
subcontractor (s) to handle safety at site.
[.860]
Factor 2: Operational
(Variance = 19%, Eigenvalue = 2.265, Cronbach’s α = .756)
The company has safety monitoring policy and keeps safety records.
[.898]
The company has an effective hazard reporting system [.864]
The company has an effective incident/near misses and accident reporting system [.840]
Communication on safety is an important issue for the company. [.794]
Communication channel/s used by the company proves to be highly effective in
promoting the safety in the workplace.
[.876]
7.3.1. Factors Interpretation
Each of the two factors was labelled in accordance with the common thread that
connects together the set of individual items loaded onto it. The first factor was
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
112
labelled “Strategic” because it contained seven items addressing safety management
strategic issues. These items include: existence of effective safety plans for site;
recruitment policy for workers; managers and sub-contractors with particular
reference to their safety experience; training programmes for workers, managers and
supervisors; and expected level of cooperation between main contractor and sub-
contractors on safety issues. The majority of these items enjoy relatively large factor
loadings (>0.77). The mean and standard deviation scores showed that a majority of
the managers were of the opinion that their organisation did not have a proper and
highly effective site safety plans [mean score = 1.49]; there is neither policy for
having a safety experience criteria for the recruitment of staff (which includes,
workforce, managers, site supervisors) nor for hiring sub-contractors [mean score =
1.35]; no proper or specific safety training is conducted for the workforce [mean
score = 2.01], managers, supervisors [mean score = 2.0]. Managers did, however,
indicate that the relationship of cooperation between the main contractor and sub-
contractors regarding safety is satisfactory [mean score = 4.29].
The second factor, “Operational”, contained five items addressing the operational
aspects of site work. Such items include: monitoring safety policy and keeping
safety records; having an efficient hazard, incident and near miss reporting system;
and the effectiveness of communication styles on promoting safety issues in the
workplace. Many of the managers confirmed the existence of proper safety
monitoring policies [mean score = 4.68] and effective hazard reporting systems on
the sites [mean score = 4.15]. The presence of an effective communication systems
for safety issues was also strongly acknowledged [mean score = 4.88].
7.4. Managers’ Cultural Survey (MCS)
The same questionnaire, used for the workers’ culture survey, was also
administrated for the managers. The sample was increased to 130 to reach the
required adequacy level of sample size for performing factor analysis. Hair et al.
(1998) mentions that, as a general rule, the minimum sample size should be at least
five times as many observations as there are variables to be analysed.
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
113
7.4.1. Factor Analysis
Prior to proceeding with the factor analysis, a suitability test was also conducted on
this set of data. The test of measuring sampling adequacy (MSA) was conducted.
This test showed that five variables of the culture questionnaire could not meet the
required minimum value of 0.5. Therefore each of the five variables was removed
one by one, and each time the test was repeated to check the MSA. Finally, it was
found that all these five variables had to be removed so as to proceed with factor
analysis. The deleted variables were:
• Safety problems are openly discussed between workers and supervisors;
• Workers lose respect for a supervisor, who asks them for their input before he
makes any safety decision;
• I prefer the company having less strict rules and where I feel easy to work with,
to the company having more strict rules and long working hours to follow;
• I will not change my attitude towards safety rules, even if my supervisor praises
safe work behaviour; and
• I prefer the company having higher pay rates but lower safety records to the
company having better safety records but average pay rates.
After deleting the five variables, the MSA test was again conducted to identify the
changing effect of individual MSA values in each of the variables. Individual MSA
values were found ranging from 0.59 to 0.88. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value
was found to be .809 and the Bartlett test of sphericity reached statistical
significance with chi-square 5962.778, df190 and significance level of 0.000.
The 20 variables were now deemed fit for factor analysis tests. They were put into
the factor analysis by conducting a principle factor analysis. This test revealed the
presence of a three-factor solution, which accounted for 81 % of the total variance.
Eigenvalues for the three factors were found to be greater than one. Varimax
rotation was performed so as to interpret results of those loadings on the three-factor
solution. The factors were then examined to identify the number of items that loaded
on each factor. Care was taken to pick only those items that had loadings equal to or
more than 0.5 (Hair et al., 1998). The first factor catered for nine items, followed by
six and five in the second and third factors, respectively. As with the factor analysis
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
114
for workers’ cultural survey, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the
three-factor solution for managers’ cultural survey.
All nine items, which were loaded previously on the first factor through the
exploratory analysis, were then put in for the confirmatory factor analysis. The
rationale for adopting this procedure was to confirm the results of the exploratory
factor analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis identified the existence of the first
factor with all those nine factors homed in it. Also, the result of the confirmatory
factor analysis identified the existence of the second and third factor with the same
six and five item loadings respectively. Table 7.2 depicts the 20 items in the three
factors and their respective factor loadings, explained variances, eigenvalues and
cornbach’s alpha (α).
Table 7.2 Factor Loadings for the 3-factor model of Managers Cultural Survey
Factor 1: Power Distance & Femininity
(Variance = 37%, Eigenvalue = 7.449, Cronbach’s α = .743)
Major decisions regarding site safety issues, always take place after consulting with
site workers / subcontractors
[.751]
Managers and supervisors do encourage feedback regarding safety issues from site
workers
[.703]
I am always encouraged to raise any safety concern with my site supervisor [.807]
Workers are always being consulted regarding preparation of site safety plans [.772]
I am allowed to act decisively if I find any situation contrary to safe conditions on
site
[.931]
Personally I enjoy the risk aspects associated with my job [.975]
Safety decisions made by me alone are usually more effective then decisions made
by my co-workers together
[.706]
It is not always important to have a good working relationship with my supervisor [-.826]
When workers ignore safety procedures at my workplace, I feel it is none of my
business
[-.761]
Factor 2: Uncertainty Avoidance
(Variance = 24%, Eigenvalue = 4.835, Cronbach’s α = .850)
Generally workers follow safety rules without being told to do so
[.985]
Safety rules should not be broken, even when worker believes it affects the
production
[.703]
Safety decisions made by the management usually seems to be more effective then
decisions made by workers
[.985]
Many accidents just happen, there is little one can do to avoid them [.842]
I prefer to work with larger company as they have more effective safety practices on
site than the smaller one
[.837]
I often feel nervous or tense at work [.853]
Factor 3: Collectivism
(Variance = 20%, Eigenvalue = 4.022, Cronbach’s α = .701)
A company should have major responsibility for the health and welfare of its injured
worker
[.756]
Co-workers often give tips to each other on how to work safely [.762]
A safe place to work has a lot of personal meaning to me and my co-workers [.986]
It would help in improving the site safety, if my co-workers support safe behaviour [.747]
Safety training can help me in improving my attitude to work more safely [.978]
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
115
7.4.2. Factors Interpretation
The first factor on the basis of the nine items loaded to it was labelled “Power
Distance & Femininity”. It contained 37 % of the total variance. The items loaded
on this factor were basically addressing the issues of perception of power distance,
masculinity, and femininity. Similar to the workers’ cultural survey analysis, the
managers’ cultural survey also revealed the overlapping of two cultural dimensions.
This time it was “Power Distance” and “Femininity”. Out of the nine items, the
first five were posed to measure the perception of power distance and the rest of the
items addressed femininity/masculinity. The Likeret type of scale was measured as
1= strong agreement and 5= strong disagreement. The mean values for the second
and third, regarding “to encourage feedback on safety issues from workers” and
“encouraging workers to raise any safety concern”, showed that managers are a little
happy or feel less power distance in giving such “liberty” to workers (1.97 - 2.12).
The remaining power distance statements, surprisingly, showed that managers have
a strong perception for power distance (4.12 – 4.65). These mean values depict that
managers do not accept the idea to include all the workers into that process, to save
time and avoid confusion. This shows that managers do feel comfortable welcoming
feedback on any concerns on safety issues from workers, on one hand. However,
they feel reluctant to ask for the participation of workers while developing site safety
plans. From the managers’ perspective, it would be difficult and confusing to ask all
of the workers to contribute their ideas in order to come up with site safety plans or
such issues. Also they hesitate to allow or authorise the workers to stop work
immediately, if they encounter any safety hazard conditions.
The mean values ranged from 4.28 to 4.85 for the four statements, which were posed
to ascertain the perception of femininity, revealed their feminist attitude rather than
the masculinity.
The second factor for managers’ cultural survey catered for six items, all of which
were posed to measure the perception of uncertainty among the managers. This
factor, which was labelled “Uncertainty Avoidance”, contained 24 % of the total
variance. Items or statements for this item were of two different styles. Out of the
six items, two were presented in such a way that agreement with them would
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
116
represent high uncertainty avoidance (mean values ranging from 1.52 to 1.54) and
the rest of the four items were presented in a way that disagreement with those items
would represent high uncertainty avoidance (mean values ranging from 4.42 to 4.56).
The managers’ responses to all these statements (whether agree or not) revealed a
high degree of uncertainty avoidance attitude.
The third factor had five items and contained 20 % of the total variance. This factor
was labelled “Collectivism” because all the items it catered for were posed to
measure the perception of collectivism among the managers. The mean values (1.20
to 1.59) for the responses showed that managers also possess a strong perception
towards work collectively rather than individually.
7.5. Relationship between Safety Management Systems and
National Culture
A Pearson correlation test was carried out to explore the linear relationship (if any)
between the two already identified safety management factors (strategic and
operational) and national culture dimensions.
The Pearson correlation results revealed some strong linear correlations between the
national culture dimensions and the two safety management systems factors. Table
7.3 details the values of the Pearson correlations along with the significance values
(α). The national culture dimension of Power Distance & Femininity showed strong
positive correlations with the two factors “Strategic” and “Operational”. The
results of the descriptive analysis of the managers’ cultural questionnaire relating to
the measurement of power distance and femininity revealed that managers posses
more power distance and a less masculine attitude. Therefore the presence of such a
strong correlation and descriptive analysis shows that there is a strong effect of
femininity and power distance on the strategic and operational issues of safety.
Managers’ decisions regarding safety plans, safety monitoring, hazard reporting,
cooperation between main contractor and sub contractor issues are strongly affected
by the femininity and power distance cultural dimension. They tend to tolerate the
power distance issue to some extent (till where they feel the workers will not take
this “facility” or “luxury” for granted and become too demanding). After that they
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
117
feel they have to be strict and maintain discipline and so their level of power
distance increases.
Table 7.3 Statistically Significant Correlations between Safety Management
Survey and Cultural Factors
The second cultural dimension of “Uncertainty avoidance” showed a negative
relationship with the first factor of safety management systems “Strategic” and a
surprisingly positive relationship with the second factor “Operational”. As the
descriptive analysis showed that managers have a stronger uncertainty avoidance
nature, this negative relationship could be explained as: the higher uncertainty
avoidance, the lower will be their risk taking attitude/behaviour in their strategic
planning for safety. The positive relationship between Operational and Uncertainty
avoidance factors shows the higher the uncertainty avoidance the more intense will
be site safety activities, such as hazard reporting, accident reporting and the use of
effective communication channels for safety.
The third cultural dimension of Collectivism showed a strong positive relationship
with the Operational factor. From the descriptive analysis of the cultural dimension
“Collectivism”, it was obvious that managers tend to be more comfortable and
confident while working in a collectivistic environment. Therefore, this positive
relationship depicts that the operational aspects of safety will be more effective and
efficient, if managers work closely together. These operational aspects include:
monitoring safety performance; having a combined effort for hazard reporting; and
using effective communication channels.
The same third cultural dimension of Collectivism failed to show a statistically
significant relationship with Strategic safety management factor. At the strategic
level, where recruitment policy regarding workers, managers and sub-contractors is
discussed or the training programmes (if any) worked out, the collectivistic part of
PD & FEM UA COL
Pearson Correlation
.639 -.720 .598
Strategic
Sig. (2-tailed) .018 .037 .061
Pearson Correlation
.632 .720 .818
Operational
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .023 .017
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
118
the culture does not play an important part as compared to the operational level. At
operational level managers’ responsibilities usually include monitoring safety
hazards, incident/near misses reports, and safety communication between managers
and workers, as well the sub-contractors. Therefore this non-significant relationship
with Strategic factor can be interpreted as managers feel confident and comfortable
in a collectivistic environment and prefer to carry on the “Operational” duties
collectively as compared to “Strategic” ones.
7.6. Conclusion
It was good to see that the majority of interviewed managers had good deal of
working experience in the construction industry. While fewer numbers of managers
had a chance to obtain safety training, it was encouraging to see all that managers
did understand and appreciate the importance of training in reducing the number of
site accidents. It was interesting to find that many of the managers had a good
working experience abroad, and that they were utilising their safety consciousness
attitude to the maximum extent by: developing local site safety plans; the mandatory
wearing of hard hats and hard boots; and using safety signs throughout some
construction sites.
Both the management surveys (MS-I and MS-II) indicated that the majority of the
sites did not have site safety plans. Only two out of the eight visited sites had safety
plans; these were mostly generic documents that could be applied to any
construction site. Six out of the eight sites had no recruiting policy on the basis of
safety experience or the competence for workers, managers and sub-contractors.
Almost all sites showed affirmative attitudes to the existence of safety monitoring
systems, at least to basic level. Managers were found to be satisfied using the
informal approach (e.g. individual briefings) to communicate safety issues. Some
evidence was found to show that the main contractor had a good level of safety co-
operation with his sub-contractor staff as well.
The cultural analysis revealed again the merging of two cultural dimensions into one,
as with the workers cultural analysis covered in Chapter Six. Power distance and
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
119
femininity came as one factor, along with uncertainty avoidance and collectivism.
The mean and standards deviation values revealed that managers are also of a
collective, feminist nature and have higher uncertainty avoidance in their attitudes
towards safety. For power distance, it was interesting to see that unlike workers,
managers believe in power distance and do not believe in participatory culture. It
was clearly observed, from the descriptive analysis of the cultural items regarding
power distance, that majority of the interviewed managers showed quite a lot of
flexibility with the “feedback” issue (if it is not challenging managers’ decision),
regarding safety on site, and encouraging workers to “raise any safety concern” (if it
is not too demanding). It was surprising to see the firm and rigid attitude of the
managers on the non-participation culture for issues like “major decisions on safety”
and “preparations of site plans”. Managers recommended “power distance” as a
useful tool for effective administration. Managers tended to be more collectivistic
and supportive, less masculine and more uncertainty averse while they make their
safety decisions either in head office or on site. These findings regarding power
distance and collectivism are in line with Khilji’s (2001) and Islam’s (2004) findings.
Khilji’s (2001) findings show that the organizational structure in Pakistan is
bureaucratic, centralized and not generally responsive to the needs of the employees.
Also, she pointed out that several managers have resisted the development of
participatory culture, to retain the power and non-questioning culture. According to
Islam (2004), Pakistan’s collectivist orientation and its kinship-based culture go a
long way in explaining the prevalence of power distance within their administration.
Pakistani traditions of a value system based on kinship and the high tolerance of
inequality (power distance) goes side by side. Though the norms, values and
institutions vary to some degree from region to region, the central place of the
family and kinship remains constant (Islam, 2004).
The Pearson correlation analysis of the interrelationships between managers’
cultural trends and their safety practices revealed some strong relationship patterns.
This analysis shows that managers’ cultural trends do have an influence on their
safety practices. Their safety related decisions, whether developed in head office or
on site, are definitely influenced by their collectivistic, feministic, power distance
and high uncertainty avoidance attitude.
Chapter7
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
120
Managers’ feminist and power distance attitudes influence their strategic and
operational decisions directly. This case was found between uncertainty avoidance,
collectivism and their operational site-based safety management practices.
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
121
Chapter 8
Prediction of Worker’s Perceptions and
Attitudes through National Culture &
Manager’s Safety Practices
After exploring the effect of workers’ culture on their perceptions and attitudes
(detailed in Chapter Six) and then the effect of managers’ culture on their safety
practices (detailed in Chapter Seven), the next statistical task was to combine the
responses of both culture samples (workers and managers) and bring it to a single
sample of national culture. This approach was to help explore the effect of national
culture, along with the managers’ safety practices on workers’ perceptions and
attitudes, which in turn influence or predict workers’ behaviour (detailed in Chapter
Six). In other words, this would be the strongest test of the hypothesis concerning
which independent variables (National Cultural dimensions and Managers’ Safety
Practices factors) predict, or are associated with, the dependent variables of workers’
perceptions and beliefs regarding safety (Safety Climate). The combining procedure
of the two culture samples, the factor analysis on the combined sample, and the
results are reported in this chapter. It also details the results of the regression model
for independent and dependent variables.
The results reported here are presented under two main sections. Section 8.1
discusses the procedure for combining the culture surveys for workers and managers,
differences in their opinions, and the extraction of cultural dimensions through
factor analysis. Section 8.2 details the results obtained for prediction of workers’
perceptions and attitudes (dependent variables) through managers’ safety practices
and national culture (independent variables). This prediction analysis was carried out
through a linear multiple regression analysis using SPSS (version 11.5)
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
122
8.1. National Culture
The procedure adopted for combining the two culture questionnaire samples
(workers and managers) into a single sample, labelled from this point onwards as
National Culture, are presented here.
A T-test for independent groups is useful when the goal is to compare the difference
between the means of two groups with the same variable. An independent sample T-
test was conducted to compare the mean values between workers’ and managers’
cultural questionnaire responses.
It was hypothesized that the mean values between those two samples will be the
same, thus allowing the author to combine the two samples together. However, the
results showed a difference in mean values for 18 items, consequently initially
rejecting null hypothesis. The national cultural questionnaire (both for workers and
managers) had a Likert-type scale, where 1 = strong agreement, and 5 = strong
disagreement. A careful examination of the mean values revealed that the means
score of twenty (20) items only fluctuated between scale 1 and 2, or scale 4 and 5,
thus making no significant change in the opinions. Only five items were found,
whose mean values had a big difference on the scales and thus clearly showed a
marked difference in the opinions between these two samples. As a result, the
following five items were removed prior to proceeding with combining the two
samples; this was done as it was felt that those particular items could not be
combined together as they showed a clear difference in opinions. The five items
were:
• Managers and supervisors do encourage feedback regarding safety issues
from site workers;
• Generally workers follow safety rules without being told to do so;
• Personally I enjoy the risk aspects associated with my job;
• Many accidents just happen, there is little one can do to avoid them; and
• I prefer to work with a larger company as they have more effective safety
practices on site than the smaller one.
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
123
8.1.1. Difference in Opinions in National Culture Items
The literature has not been able to provide a clear distinction between cross-cultural
management research (CCMR) and cross-national management research (CNMR).
CCMR tends to look for similarities rather than differences in culture, i.e. it attempts
to show that a particular theory, developed in one cultural environment, applies also
in one or more different cultural environments. CNMR, on the other hand, tends to
look for differences rather than the similarities, i.e. it attempts to demonstrate the
extent to which the functioning of organizations is affected by their culture (Sparrow
and Wu, 1998). On the basis of the above stated theory, an attempt was made to
explore the differences in the national culture of two different samples (workers and
managers), so as to highlight those cultural dimensions on which both samples have
a marked difference in opinion.
As mentioned earlier, five items were deleted from further analysis, because a clear
difference of opinions was observed between the workers and the managers on those
items. The first item was posed to measure the concept of power distance that
workers and managers perceive in their organisation. This was supported by the
item’s loading on the power distance dimension, discussed previously in Section
7.4.2. The second item was used to gauge the perception of masculinity in workers
and managers. This item was also loaded positively onto the dimension of
masculinity in the analysis of both workers’ and managers’ cultural surveys. The
remaining three items helped to better understand the level of uncertainty avoidance
in workers and managers. These three items were positively loaded onto uncertainty
dimension. This section discusses each item separately.
Item 1 “Managers and supervisors do encourage feedback
regarding safety issues from site workers”
Sixty percent of the workers agreed with this statement, but added that mostly the
workers’ representative was consulted rather than every worker. This clarification
appears reasonable, as of course no body would expect managers to consult each and
every worker before making any decisions on safety issues. However, 40 % of the
workers did not agree at all, not even with the representative issue, stating that
decisions on safety matters always take place with management without a
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
124
consideration of their representation; they are just informed after the decision is
made. An interesting point was that all those workers were unconcerned with such
non-participation. The workers reported that they have faith in their management, so
whatever decision made regarding safety, they believe management will make a
decision that would be beneficial for the workers. Workers also believed that the
company they had worked for so long now was like a family to them, with the
managers being as an elder who possessed a better decision-making ability.
Therefore, it could be concluded that workers tend to see some acceptable power
distance from the management side; they are also more linked to the uncertainty
avoidance side; they do not want to take risks in making safety decisions; and they
are satisfied with delegating this responsibility totally to the managers.
From the management side 70 % of the managers did not agree that they involve
workers in their decisions on safety matters. To the managers, involving workers or
even their representatives in their safety policy decisions is just a waste of time. Two
reasons were quoted by most interviewed managers for such an attitude: 1) workers
will then become too demanding; and 2) workers or even their representatives are
not competent enough for such tasks. The rest of interviewed managers agreed that
they do involve workers’ representatives, just for the sake of developing
participatory working culture. When this group of managers was asked about the
issue of the competency of the workers’ representative, their views were not
different to other managers. They endorsed the issue of fewer competencies in
workers, which involved: illiteracy, limited experience and sometimes a hyper
attitude which hinders their ability to make the right decision. The mean value for
workers on this item was 2.09 and for managers it was 4.17.
Item 2 “Personally I enjoy the risk aspects associated with my job”
The mean value for workers on this item was 4.14 and for managers it was 2.17.
Eighty-five percent of the workers disagreed with the above statement. This means
that they do not get excited by the risk they perceive in their job, rather they take the
chance of a risk seriously and cautiously, so as to avoid any possible injury or
mishap. The remaining 15 % of workers agreed with this item. This particular
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
125
finding confirms the earlier finding of this study regarding the unsafe behaviour of a
minority of workers; the majority of the workers showed more careful attitudes and
safe perceptions for behavioural situations, as presented to them. Fewer workers (not
more than 10 %) were found to have misperceptions about the potential risks on site.
Seventy-two percent managers, on the other hand, agreed with the statement, while
20 % were negative and 8 % were not sure what to say. The majority of managers’
affirmative replies show that to managers the nature of risk associated with their job
may differ according to the characteristics of the workers. Or the managers do not
find themselves directly exposed to construction hazards, as the workers do, so for
them the risk perception can be different to that of the workers.
Item 3 “Generally workers follow safety rules without being told to do so”
This item showed a clear-cut split in opinions between the workers and the
managers. It appears from the mean values of the respondents that both samples
were pandering to their ego, the mean value for workers on this item was 2.14,
where as for the managers it was 4.53.
Seventy percent of the workers thought that it was not always necessary to be
reminded of their safety responsibilities. They understand the difference between
safe and unsafe acts, therefore they do follow safety rules. However, 25 % of the
workers did not agree with this item and the remaining 5 % were not sure what to
answer.
Ninety-five percent of the managers on the other hand declined this proposition and
consented that they have to remind workers every minute, every day to comply with
the safety rules, for the workers’ own self interest. Further, the managers also felt
that workers were careless and thus, if managers do not consistently remind them of
the basic safety issues they would never follow. The remaining 5 % of the managers
thought that the workers did follow the safety rules without repeatedly being
reminded.
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
126
Item 4 “Many accidents just happen, there is little one can do to avoid
them”
The frequency of distribution of the replies for this item was interesting. For
workers: 50 % said yes, 30 % said no and 20 % were not sure, while for the
managers: 20 % said yes, 65 % said no and 15 % were not sure. The agreement with
the above item highlights that people have less uncertainty avoidance and that
disagreement poses a higher uncertainty avoidance. Looking into the frequency
distribution of both samples for this particular item, it appears that workers stand
towards less uncertainty avoidance as compared to managers. Managers seem to
have a higher uncertainty avoidance because, they feel in charge of the site and it is
their responsibility to avoid accidents as much as they can. Consequently managers
prefer to act as the main player in making the site safer, rather than just sitting
around and waiting for accidents to happen; then accounting for them as past of
destiny. Workers on the other hand, feel that they are not the controlling agents of
the site, therefore they can not help much with avoiding accidents. Therefore the
workers’ agreement to this item depicts their less un-certainty avoidance attitude.
The mean value for the workers was 2.77 and for the managers it was 4.08.
Item 5 “I prefer to work with larger company as they have more effective
safety practices on site than the smaller one”
The mean value for the workers’ response on this item was only 2.28 and for
managers it was 4.15. Sixty-five percent of the workers said that they prefer such
arrangements where the management might be more interested in keeping the
workplace safe and they have the chance to work more safely. It is worth mentioning
here that 80 % of the workers who consented in the affirmative for this item were
working with sub-contractors, in relatively small companies as compared to others.
Thirty-five percent of the workers thought that, whether working in a small or large,
organisation they are doing just fine and they did not opt for any change. One of the
general reservations for not positively consenting to this item was the risk of job
insecurity in bigger companies.
Sixty-five of managers on this item said no to this proposition preferring to work
with a smaller company. They were not concerned whether the smaller or lager
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
127
company had more or less safety practices. Again, this response was in connection
with the item of un-certainty avoidance, in which they were asked about enjoying
the risk associated with their job. For managers there might not be much of risk in
their related job, therefore they did not care much for the working with larger
organisation just for the sake of their safety record. They instead prefer to work with
those companies that offer them good pay and positions. The rest of 35 % did care
about safety and responded yes to the item.
8.1.2. National Culture Dimensions
After removing the above items, the number of items left on the culture
questionnaire were now 20. Out of those 20, five more items were dropped/deleted
from further analysis. The rationale was that those five items were already deleted
from the individual analysis of the culture for workers and managers due to either
not reaching to MSA minimum value or to item section criteria values. Out of these
deleted items, two items were commonly deleted from both analyses (workers’ and
managers’ cultural analysis) and, in addition to those two items, three more were
deleted from the managers’ cultural analysis. The deleted items were:
• Safety problems are openly discussed between workers and supervisors;
• Workers lose respect for a supervisor, who seeks their input before he
makes any safety decision;
• I prefer the company having less strict rules and where I feel easy to work
with, to the company having more strict rules and long working hours to
follow;
• I will not change my attitude towards safety rules, even if my supervisor
praises safe work behaviour; and
• I prefer the company having higher pay rates but lower safety records to the
company having better safety records but average pay rates.
The remaining 15 items of the national culture survey were then factor analysed by
using component analysis with Varimax rotation. In order to assess the suitability of
data for factor analysis all the checks were performed as previously mentioned in
earlier chapters.
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
128
Table 8 1 Factor loadings for the 3-factor model of National Culture
The sample size for this analysis was 270 (workers = 140 and managers = 130).
Therefore the ratio of 18 cases to 1 variable was found and was deemed fit for
further analysis (Hair et al., 1998).
The test for sample adequacy (MSA) showed that all 15 variables were well within
the adequacy limits of 0.5 or above. Also the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test gave
the value of 0.790. The factor analysis revealed the presence of three factors having
the eigenvalues of more than unity. The Varimax rotation was then performed so as
to obtain an interpretable result for that three-factor solution. These three factors
accounted for 78% of the total variance. Factors were then examined to identify the
number of variables or items that loaded on each factor by keeping in mind the
threshold value mentioned by Hair et al. (1998). Table 8 1 depicts the 15 items in
three (3) factors and their respective factor loadings, explained variances
eigenvalues and Cornbach’s α for three-factor solution.
Nine items were loaded on the first factor, which accounted for 42% of the total
variance. This first factor was labelled “Collectivism and Femininity” because of the
nature of the items contained in this factor. The second factor catered four items
Factor 1: Collectivism & Femininity
(Variance = 42%, Eigenvalue = 6.293, Cronbach’s α = .679)
Loadings
I often feel nervous or tense at work [.914]
A company should have major responsibility for the health and welfare of its injured worker [.905]
Co-workers often give tips each other on how to work safely [.840]
A safe place to work has a lot of personal meaning to me and my co-worker [.876]
It would help in improving the site safety, if my co-workers support safe behaviour [.909]
Safety training can help me in improving my attitude to work more safely
Safety decisions made by me alone are usually more effective then decisions made by my co-
workers together
[.588]
[.878]
It is not always important to have a good working relationship with my supervisor [-.602]
When workers ignore safety procedures at my workplace, I feel it is none of
my business
[-.701]
Factor 2: Power Distance
(Variance = 21%, Eigenvalue = 3.153, Cronbach’s α = .600)
Major decisions regarding site safety issues, always take place after consulting with site
workers/subcontractors
[.886]
I am always encouraged to raise any safety concern with my supervisor [.849]
Workers are always being consulted regarding preparation of site safety plans [.698]
I am allowed to act decisively if I find any situation contrary to safe conditions on site [.940]
Factor 3: Uncertainty Avoidance
(Variance = 15%, Eigenvalue = 2.232, Cronbach’s α = .590)
Safety rules should not be broken, even when worker believes it affects the production [.787]
Safety decisions made by the management usually seems to be more effective then decisions made
by workers
[.730]
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
129
with 21% of variance and was labelled “Power Distance”. The third factor
accounted only for 15 % of the total variance and two items were grouped into this
factor referring to the uncertainty avoidance theme; therefore it was labelled as
“Uncertainty Avoidance”.
8.2. Prediction of Worker’s Perceptions and Attitudes through
National Culture and Managers’ Safety Practices
8.2.1. Regression Analysis
The prediction of workers’ perceptions and attitudes through the national culture and
the managers’ safety practices was investigated using the regression analysis
technique. Regression analysis informs how strongly a related pair of variables is,
via a measure of correlation. It also measures the extent of the effect that a change in
the independent variable (IV) has on the dependent variable (DV) (Rose and
Sullivan, 1993). The linear regression technique, using ordinary least squares (OLS),
is suitable for this analysis as the dependent variables (i.e. Awareness & Beliefs,
Physical Work Environment, and Workers Supportive Environment) are of
continuous nature. These variables were assessed against two sets of independent
variables:
1. The three national cultural dimensions identified in the previous section
(i.e. Collectivism & Femininity, Power distance, and Uncertainty
avoidance) ; and
2. Managers’ safety practices factors, namely Strategic and Operational
(identified in Section 7.3).
Each of the three dependent variables was put into a regression model separately
with the two independent variables. The results revealed that two cultural
dimensions (Collectivism & Femininity and Uncertainty avoidance) and two
Strategic and Operational factors showed statistically significant relationships with
the three dependent variables, suggesting that these IVs have an influence in
predicting the attitudes and perceptions of the workers (DVs). (Refer to Table 8.2 for
multiple regression analysis results and also Figure 8.1, which provides a graphical
summary of the statistical findings of the test.)
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
130
8.2.2. Interpretation of Statistical Findings
The regression analysis revealed that the most significant predictor on workers’
perceptions and attitudes was the “Operational” factor (Beta = 0.916, p = 0.007).
The operational factor, as explained in Chapter 7, dealt mainly with site safety issues.
The items which contributed to this factor were: having effective hazard reporting
system; effective incident/near misses and accident reporting, and the importance of
safety communication and its effectiveness on construction site.
The correlation of this operational factor with workers’ “Physical Work
Environment” was in fact expected. The positive relationship between these two
variables shows that the greater the managers’ safety record in terms of their site
safety issues; the more positive the workers’ attitudes and perceptions will be. An
interesting point in this particular finding was that this factor showed the strongest
relationship with workers’ attitudes on their work environment. This means that
workers, before relying on their instincts and initiative, first rely on the managers’
safe practices. The particular finding confirms the previous finding of this research
for relating to the workers’ higher uncertainty avoidance and acceptance of power
distance. Workers in more hierarchal organisations expect their bosses to be a
“model” which they follow. Also in higher uncertainty avoidance culture workers
mostly rely to their bosses’s decisions/instructions. So the more the safe operational
practices on the site that the managers adopt, the workers will perceive them in a
positive light; thus the safer will be the physical work environment.
According to the Beta value, the second most influential factor predicting workers’
“Safety Awareness and Beliefs” was the national cultural dimension of “Collectivism
and Femininity” (Beta = 0.761, p = 0.000). This relationship had a positive Beta sign.
Thus, if managers have more collectivism and feminist attitudes in designing and
planning the safety plans, the result would be more awareness and a stronger belief
by workers in safety issues. If managers openly discuss safety issues with workers
and if workers observe the cooperative attitudes of managers, workers in turn will
feel more secure, involved and will confidently behave in a cohesive or collective
manner, which will definitely help to improve or increase their safety awareness and
safety beliefs.
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
131
The third significant influential predictor was again “Collectivism and Femininity”,
but this time it predicted workers “Physical Work Environment” (Beta =0.421, p =
0.000). This relation depicts that a more collectivistic and feminist nature of workers
will result in a more combined effort for making the work environment safer. It has
been proved from the workers’ cultural analysis that the more they are allowed to
work in collectivistic and feminist environment, the more they can advise each other
regarding safety; thus ensuring a safer work place.
One of the last two predictions was by managers’ safety practices’ first factor
“Strategic” (Beta = 0.273, p = 0.005). This factor contains all those items, which are
usually used for the strategic planning for safety on sites, for example, the existence
of site plans, site safety procedures, recruitment policy and training programmes.
This positive relationship can therefore be narrated as: the stronger the management
commitment on safety issues, the higher will be the workers’ safety awareness and
beliefs. This is because they will see how committed their management is in terms
of safety issues on site, and result in the safer attitude of the workers on safety issues.
The last predictor for workers safety awareness and beliefs was “Uncertainty
Avoidance” (Beta = 0.252. p = 0.027). Again the positive Beta sign shows that the
higher the uncertainty avoidance attitude of the workers the more likely it is they
will be safe; they never want to take risks, thus they increase their safety perceptions
and beliefs. As they will be having a higher uncertainty attitude, therefore they will
always be searching for safe work practices.
The managers safety practices factor of “Strategic” failed to predict workers’
attitudinal factor of “Physical Work Environment”. The items loaded on the
“Strategic” factor included all those items which dealt with strategic planning for
safety issues, which were usually carried out in offices not on sites. On sites, only
safety strategies were executed, but these have been designed or planned at the head
office. Therefore the non-prediction of any of the workers attitudinal factors through
“Strategic” demonstrates that workers’ perceptions and attitudes are affected by
those “Operational” aspects, which they practically use on site, rather than
“Strategic” aspects which are planned in the offices.
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
132
The third cultural dimension of “Power Distance” did not predict any of the
workers’ perceptions and attitude factors (i.e. “Physical Work Environment” and
“Awareness and Beliefs”) (refer to Table 8.2). This finding was not surprising to the
author as, in Chapter Six, Section 6.6.3, while predicting workers’ behaviour
through their national culture dimensions, power distance failed to predict any of the
given behavioural situations. In Section 6.7, while exploring the relationship
between workers’ attitudes and perceptions and their national cultural dimensions,
the cultural dimension of “Power Distance” showed a relationship with only one
workers’ attitudinal factor “Awareness and Beliefs” (refer to Table 6.8) and failed to
demonstrate any relations with the other two factors.
Therefore it can be concluded that there is a linear relationship between “Power
Distance” with workers’ attitudinal factors of “Awareness and Beliefs”, but when it
comes to exploring the level of prediction of workers’ attitude and perception,
specifically, “Power Distance” fails to do so. It seems, when it comes to shaping
workers attitudes and perceptions regarding their own safety “Awareness and
Beliefs” and “Physical Work Environment”, the cultural dimension “power distance”
start losing its effect and becomes less significant, as compared to the two other
cultural dimensions, (i.e. COL & FEM and UA).
Figure 8.1 A model of statistically significant predicted relationships between
IVs & DVs
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
133
Table 8.2 Results of Multiple Regression Analysis
8.3. Conclusion
After dropping five items off the cultural questionnaire, the two samples (workers
and managers) were combined so as to perform the factor analysis. The factor
analysis revealed the presence of three distinct dimensions for national culture.
These dimensions were labelled according to the items they contained. The three-
dimension solution, along with the managers’ safety practices factors, was then put
into the multiple regression analysis in order to predict perceptions and attitudes of
workers. Multiple regression analysis parcels out the significance of predictions
between dependent and independent variables. Figure 8.1 illustrates the predictive
relationships, along with the Beta values, obtained from the analysis. The strongest
relationship was found to exist between managers “Operational” safety practices
factor and the “Physical Work Environment”. This pattern of relationship highlights
that there is a greater likelihood of management commitment, in terms of providing
effective safety procedures, in relation to accident reporting, accident monitoring,
and safety communication, they are even more important than the culture trends in
shaping workers’ awareness for keeping the physical work environment safe.
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
B S.E Beta
t-test Sig.
(Constant) .306 .094 3.242 .001
COL&FEM .149 .017 .761 9.049 .000
PD -.079 .125 -.072 -.631 .530
UA .242 .108 .252 2.251 .027
Strategic .793 .244 .273 3.245 .005
A
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s
A
n
d
B
e
l
i
e
f
s
Operational -.050 .112 -.052 -.445 .657
(Constant) 2.861 .887 3.228 .001
COL&FEM 1.784 .435 .421 4.027 .000
PD .059 .120 .054 .490 .625
UA .050 .108 .049 .460 .647
Strategic .013 .119 .011 .106 .916
P
h
y
s
i
c
a
l
W
o
r
k
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
Operational 1.500 .326 .916 3.219 .007
(Constant) -1.118 .656 -1.708 .000
COL&FEM -.027 .129 -.023 -.211 .833
PD -.035 .149 -.027 -2.35 .815
UA .059 .120 .054 .490 .625
Strategic -.074 .096 -.078 -.773 .442
S
u
p
p
o
r
t
i
v
e
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
Operational .162 .134 .142 1.208 .230
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
134
Regression analysis findings, for one of the major objectives (influence of national
culture on workers attitude and perceptions) revealed that workers safety awareness
and beliefs is influenced by two cultural dimensions: Collectivism & Femininity, and
Uncertainty Avoidance. Both cultural dimensions had a positive relationship with
both workers’ attitude and perception factors (Awareness and Beliefs and Physical
Work Environment). This positive relationship shows that, if workers are allowed to
work in a collectivist and femininus environment, with their high uncertainty
attitude, there is a greater likelihood that the workers’ awareness and beliefs for
safety issues will increase, which, in-turn, directly affects the working environment.
The second managers’ safety practices factor “strategic” predicted workers’
awareness and beliefs. This relationship was positive as well and states that safety
beliefs will be stronger, if management commitment persists. If workers are
convinced by the seriousness of their management towards safety issues, in terms of
developing site safety plans, providing safety trainings programmes and
improvement in the level of cooperation between main contractors and sub
contractors, then workers’ attitudes towards safety will be stronger.
The difference in opinions between workers and managers on the five national
cultural items showed that managers believe more in power distance and generally
in less uncertainty avoidance. These findings are in line with the findings for the
managers’ cultural trends (Chapter Seven). Workers, on the other hand, showed
fewer assumptions about power distance and a higher uncertainty avoidance.
According to Khilji (2003), hierarchical differences are learned early in life; a child
is taught to be respectful in relationships and is discouraged from questioning
authority. This is carried over to organizational settings where a formal, hierarchical
structure exists. Hofstede (1980) found that Pakistan seems to have a moderately
high score on the Power Distance Index (PDI). Pakistan ranked 18th among a group
of 52 countries on his PDI index. This signifies that Pakistanis tolerate a rather high
degree of inequality. Only a low level of autonomy is given to employees and they
are rarely encouraged to rely on themselves or to learn new things.
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
135
The findings on workers’ and managers’ cultural analysis showed their inclination
towards collectivism rather than individualism. Supporting this finding is Hofstede’s
(1980) study which found Pakistan scored very low on individualism, but very high
on collectivism. Pakistan remains essentially a collectivist country, where
individualism, in the sense of the western urban society, does not exist, particularly
in rural areas. An individual is an inalienable part of the multiple groups which
completely dominate his or her individuality (Islam, 2004). The most significant
manifestation of Pakistani collectivism is the key role played by the family and the
kinship structures. This is especially so in the rural areas which are dominated by a
value system based on kinship, family, zat (lineage group), qaum (occupational
group) and tribe (Khilji, 2003). As mentioned in Chapter Four, in the discussion on
Pakistani national culture, construction workers also feel more comfortable and
confident working in groups, which usually are made up of their own social groups.
Another interesting finding was the mis-trust of workers towards management on a
number of items. Though generally workers trust managers on safety issues, when it
comes to “open communication” as an indication of site safety hazards, workers
seem reluctant to express their feelings as they fear job lose, may be blamed for the
hazard or may receive another penalty. f*ckuyama (1995) makes it clear that a
collectivistic society is not necessarily one in which all are united towards a
common goal, but rather one in which innumerable different collectives (usually
kin-based) compete, and where the success of one collective is interpreted as the
failure of another. That is why a “collectivist” society is also a “low-trust” society.
Jamal (1998) mentions that Pakistani employees have low-trust among themselves
and with management. The current study confirms this view, finding that workers
distrust management’s promises because they are rarely implemented.
Uncertainty avoidance (UA) is the cultural tendency to feel uncomfortable with
uncertainty and risk in everyday life. It reflects the degree to which people in a
country prefer a structured, over an unstructured, situation. High UA cultures prefer
formal rules and structured organizations (Hofstede, 1980). Pakistan ranks fairly
high on Hofstede’s Uncertainty Avoidance Index. Pakistan’s high uncertainty is
evident in its organizational structure. Its highly hierarchic structures, with
Chapter8
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
136
centralized power are used as the principal means to coordinate and resolve conflicts.
Hierarchy is used to reduce uncertainty (Islam, 2004).
Chapter 9
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
137
Chapter 9
Conclusion
9.1. Background Information
A review of the literature on the construction industry, safety management, safety
climate and its factors and national culture in chapters One, Two , Three and Four,
provided a framework for the research methods in Chapter Five. Chapters Six,
Seven and Eight presented the analysis of the data and the results in detail. This
chapter (Chapter Nine) outlines the three types of findings from the research. It
begins by summarising the key outputs of the work presented in each chapter. It then
identifies key contributions made by the research to extend and further develop the
existing body of knowledge. Finally, it outlines the implications of the work for
other researchers and the construction industry, in general, and the Pakistani
construction industry in particular, and also suggests a number of possible directions
for future research.
9.2. Key Findings
The main objective of this research was to explore the influence of national culture
on the construction safety climate in Pakistan. With this end in mind eight secondary
objectives listed below were identified as important:
1. Undertake a literature review on: occupational health and safety conditions
in the construction industry in general; the construction industry in
developing countries; safety performance management and its requirement in
the construction industry; and safety climate and its relation with safe
behaviour.
Chapter 9
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
138
2. Undertake a literature review on national culture so as to explore its
relationship with, and importance to the construction industry, and then to
identify the framework for national culture to be adapted for this research.
3. To investigate the perceptions and attitudes of Pakistani workers regarding
safety at construction sites.
4. To identify workers’ level of risk perception and their preferred behaviour in
risky situations.
5. To establish whether significant relationships exist between workers’
perceptions, attitudes and their behaviour.
6. To investigate local construction safety management practices.
7. To establish whether statistically significant relationships exist between
workers’ perceptions, attitudes, work behaviour and management practices.
8. To explore the influence of key national cultural dimensions on workers’
perceptions, attitudes and work behaviour, as well as on management
practices.
These objectives have successfully been achieved, as described below:
Chapter One: Along with the introduction, a review of literature on the
vulnerable nature of the construction industry in general, as compared to any
other labour intensive industry, is presented. The scope is then narrowed-
down to the current occupational health and safety conditions in the
construction industry in developing countries, so as to provide a basis for the
research on occupational health and safety issues.
Chapter Two: On the basis of Chapter One’s review on the poor occupational
health and safety condition in the construction industry in general, and in
Chapter 9
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
139
developing countries in particular, the importance of safety management and
safety performance in any organization was highlighted, with the conclusion
that, to determine the existing level of safety management in any
organization, a safety performance instrument is essential (Tarrants, 1970).
Moving along further in the discussion, this chapter presented different
techniques used to measure the safety performance of any organization. The
different techniques considered for measuring safety performance included
an analysis of the accident data (Girmaldi, 1970), behavioural sampling
(Tarrants, 1980), and the measuring of people’s attitudes towards safety
(Schroder, 1970). Safety climate (measuring people’s attitude towards
safety) was identified as one of the measuring techniques for safety
performance in any organization. It was discussed in detail.
Chapter Three focused on national culture. It began with the introduction of
national culture and its definitions. It then justified the relevancy of national
culture with construction and presented a brief literature review of the
research on national culture in management, generally, and in construction,
specifically. This chapter then reviewed the available literature on various
frameworks: Hall (1959, 1976), Hofstede (1980), Schein (1985),
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1993) and Project GLOBE (2001). On
the basis of this review, Hofstede’s framework was identified as suitable for
this research and provided a rationale for that reason. Hofseted’s framework
was described in detail.
Chapter Four exclusively provided an overview on Pakistan. It began with an
introduction of the geographical position. Followed by a discussion on the
Pakistani national culture and a review of the literature on factors which have
influenced Pakistani culture over a long period of time. It then looked into
Pakistan’s construction industry and discussed its main players. This chapter
then concluded with an overview on the prevailing safety and health
conditions in Pakistan’s construction industry.
Chapter 9
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
140
Chapter Five was devoted to discussing and detailing the research technique
adopted for this research study. This chapter commenced with outlining the
research methodology, supported by research activities and expected output
flow diagram. Each step of the methodology was then discussed in detail,
providing all possible rationales in the development of five different
questionnaires (i.e. WAS, WBS, MS-I, MS-II, and MC (WCS + MCS)) for
two different research samples (construction workers and managers). The
objective and utility of each questionnaire survey was discussed in respective
sections of the chapter.
Chapter Six presented the results of all the statistical procedures adopted for
the data analysis so as to achieve objectives number 3, 4 and 5. A safety
climate questionnaire was administrated in order to investigate perceptions
and attitudes of Pakistani workers regarding safety at construction sites. The
results, after statistical analysis, revealed that workers had a good degree of
self-rated competence, and thus a relatively high degree of safety awareness.
The work experience of individual appears to be positively influenced by
their perception of risk. The descriptive analysis showed that the more the
working experiences of the worker, the higher the degree of risk awareness.
Though a minority of the workers did misperceive risks attached to a number
of behavioural situations, overall workers’ intentional behaviour seems to be
best explained by their attitudes towards their own and management’s safety
responsibilities. The key findings from this chapter are discussed below:
o In the workers’ attitudes and perception analysis, it was found that
workers were well aware of the risk associated with their work or
trade. They do not find working with a certain amount of risk
exciting. The mean and standard deviation values demonstrated that
workers strongly believe in having shared responsibility for safety
with management. Also they generally trust management’s decisions
on safety issues.
Chapter 9
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
141
o An interesting finding related to the positive relationship between
work experience and the perception of risk, which was found while
analysing the workers’ attitudes and perceptions questionnaire. The
descriptive analysis showed that, in majority of the cases, higher risk
perception was associated with experienced labouring.
o This study also attempted to explore the linkage among workers’
attitudes, perceptions and their intentional behaviour. The binary
logistic regression depicted a statistically significant relationship
between workers’ perception and preferred behaviour. Workers’ (1)
awareness and beliefs, (2) physical work environment, and (3)
supportive environment predicted workers’ intentional behavioural
situations. For all those behavioural situations which were clearly
perceived as of medium-to-high risk, the majority of the workers
preferred to stop working.
o In the workers’ behavioural analysis, only two out of the nine
behavioural situations gave the impression of negative team work
outcomes (for situations, please refer to Section 6.4.5). These two
specific behavioural situations were: predicted by the workers’
attitudes and perceptions factor of “Supportive Environment”.
Workers perceived these two situations as low-risk. Their intentional
behaviour was not to stop working if such a situation happens to them.
The reason for such behaviour was that they would be labelled a
coward by their co-workers if they failed to continue working in such
situations. These findings give the impression that some teamwork
factors could have a detrimental affect on safety, under some
circ*mstances (Turner and Parker, 2004). One of the reasons
attributed to this negative aspect of teamwork is its potential negative
effects on the team process. For example, group members might
engage in social loafing and reduce their efforts (Karau and Williams,
1993). Overall workers preferred behaviour was best explained by
Chapter 9
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
142
their attitudes towards their own and management’ safety
responsibilities.
o This doctoral study also analysed a variety of trades of the workers
(i.e. masons, scaffolders, carpenters, electrician, steel fixers and
painters) with their attitudes’ and perceptions’ factors (i.e. awareness
and beliefs, physical work environment and supportive work
environment). A one-way of analysis (ANOVA) was used so as to
explore statistically significant differences in the perceptions and
attitudes of the workers belonging to different trades. The results
showed a higher agreement for the trade of scaffolders with the
awareness and beliefs and supportive environment.
o Two decades ago Hofstede (1980) published his “Cultural
consequences”, which stated that national cultures can be
distinguished on the basis of four dimensions. His study included
Pakistan, along with other countries. One of the purposes of this
study was to find out whether his classifications for Pakistan are still
valid in terms of high uncertainty avoidance, high-power distance,
collectivism and femininity, as well as to find out their influence on
workers behaviour and management safety practices. It was found
that the cultural dimensions of collectivism, uncertainty avoidance
and femininity were similar to Hofstede’s (1980) study, except power
distance. The majority of the workers denied the existence of the
feeling of power distance between themselves and management.
o The results for the prediction of workers’ safe behaviour, through
national cultural dimension, demonstrated cultural dimensions of
“collectivism and femininity” and “uncertainty avoidance” as the
influential predictors.
o The results of the Pearson correlation for exploring the
interrelationship between workers’ attitudes and perceptions and the
Chapter 9
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
143
national culture showed some strong positive relationships. The
findings revealed that workers working in more collective, feminist
and higher uncertainty avoidance environments were more likely to
have safety awareness and beliefs, which in-turn will exhibit safe
behaviour.
The management survey analysis in Chapter Seven indicated that the
majority of the sites did not have a proper site safety plans. Only two out of
the eight visited sites had safety plans; these were mostly generic documents
that could be applied to any construction site. It was encouraging to observe
that many of the managers had a good working experience abroad, and thus
they understood the importance of training in reducing site accidents. Many
of the site engineers and project engineers, due to their safety consciousness
attitude, had developed local site safety plans so as to allow them to monitor
and audit safety performance. A common comment from site engineers,
regarding the proper site safety plans, was :
“Though their organizations do not have printed and published safety
documents at the organization level, they do confirm the existence of
local site safety plans at the site level, which may not meet the
international safety and health standards, but are being effectively
implemented on the sites”.
Six out of the eight sites did not have any recruiting policy on the basis of
safety experience or competence for the workers, managers or sub-
contractors. Almost all the sites showed an affirmative attitude on the
existence of safety monitoring systems, at least to some level. Managers
were found to be happy in using the informal approach, such as individual
briefings to communicate safety issues. Some evidence was found to show
that the main contractor had effective safety co-operation with his
organisation and sub-contractor staff as well. Cultural analysis revealed the
presence of three cultural dimensions. Managers recommended “power
distance” as a useful tool for effective administration. They tend to be more
Chapter 9
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
144
collectivistic and supportive, less masculine and more uncertainty avoiders,
while they make their safety decisions either in head office or on sites. These
cultural findings for managers regarding power distance and collectivism are
in line with Khilji (2001) and Islam’s (2004) findings. Khilji (2001)
identified that the typical organizational structure in Pakistan is bureaucratic,
centralized and not generally responsive to the needs of employees. Also she
pointed out that several local managers have resisted the development of
participatory culture, in order to retain power and non-questioning culture.
The Pearson correlation analysis of interrelationships between managers’
cultural trends and their safety management preferences revealed some
strong relationship patterns. This analysis showed that managers’ safety
management preferences are being influenced by their cultural trends. Their
safety related decisions, whether being developed in head office or on site,
are definitely influenced by their high collectivistic, feministic, power
distance and uncertainty avoidance attitude.
Chapter Eight presented the results for the prediction of worker’s perceptions
and attitudes through national culture and manager’s safety practices. The
difference of opinion between workers and managers, on a number of
cultural statements, depicted workers’ belief in less power distance, and their
tendency for collectivism, femininity and high uncertainty avoidance.
Managers demonstrated their high power distance attitude in administration
and generally less uncertainty avoidance. The managers felt quite
comfortable and confident while working in a collectivistic atmosphere.
Multiple regression analysis for workers’ attitudes and perceptions factors
against national cultural factors and managers’ safety practices factors
predicted some statistically significant perception and attitude factors.
Managers’ safety practices factor “Operational” came out as the most
influential independent variable.
Finally, the multiple regression analysis findings, for one of the major
objectives; influence of national culture on workers’ attitudes and
perceptions, gave evidence that: (1) workers attitudes and perceptions with
Chapter 9
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
145
particular reference to their safety “Awareness and Beliefs” and “Physical
Work Environment” is influenced positively by two cultural dimensions (i.e.
Collectivism and Femininity and Uncertainty Avoidance). This positive
prediction of independent variables depicted that if workers were provided
with an environment of collectivism to complement their feminist and
uncertainty attitude, there was a greater probability that workers’ awareness
and beliefs for safety issues would be increased; (2) managers safety
practices factors “Operational” and “Strategic” also showed a statistically
significant prediction for workers’ safety “Awareness and Beliefs” and
“Physical Work Environment”.
9.3. Contributions to the Existing Body of Knowledge
Despite the large number of studies having addressed the concept of safety climate
and safety performance, limited research has focused on: (1) safety climate and
safety performance in the construction industry with particular reference to
developing countries; and (2) the inter-cultural study of Pakistani culture. In the
majority of available studies, researchers have either developed a new model or
replicated an already tested model with a view to improving its’ adequacy. Moreover,
to the best of the authors’ knowledge, none of the available research has explored
the influence of Pakistani culture on construction safety climate. The work
concluded through this doctoral study, for the first time, has looked into the inter-
cultural aspects of Pakistani construction workers and managers, and has then
attempted to explore the influence of Pakistani national culture on workers’ attitudes,
perceptions, and safe/unsafe behaviour, and manager’s safety practices. Therefore, it
adds to a small but growing body of empirical research concerning developing
countries’ construction safety climate and its relationship with respective national
culture values. Possibly the most notable contribution of this thesis is in examining
the cultural issues on workers and managers and identifying the difference in
opinions in national culture in workers and managers. These differences in opinions
shaped workers as of high–tolerant of power distance, high uncertainty avoidance,
more feminist and high collectivistic. While managers appeared to be believing in
more power distance, high uncertainty avoidance, more feminist and high
collectivistic.
Chapter 9
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
146
9.4. Contributions to the Pakistani Construction Industry
Due to a relatively new awareness of construction safety in Pakistan, the
construction industry lacks infrastructure for proper construction safety standards
and plans. This study provides some useful insights into the main players of the
Pakistani construction industry for a greater understanding of: (1) risk perceptions,
attitudes and safe/unsafe work behaviour of construction workers; (2) managers’
safety practices and their preferences; and (3) the extent to which workers’ attitudes
and perceptions and their behaviour are associated with their national culture. This
data not only adds to the understanding of the implications of Pakistani cultural
values on the construction organization, but also provides new knowledge for
construction managers who will be better able to understand the culture within
which they operate and improve outcomes. The results of this doctoral research will
be of use to a cross-sectional range of workers and managers.
9.5. Recommendations for Future Research
Recommendations for future research as a result of this project are listed below.
This study focused on safety climate in the Pakistani construction industry
and to what extent Pakistani national culture can influence that safety climate.
However, no attempt was made to do any sort of comparative study either
with any other developed country or developing country. Therefore further
research is recommended in this area; especially a comparative study could
be carried out on the same pattern in any developed country like Australia, so
as to compare the results within these two countries. Another comparison can
be undertaken by utilising the same questionnaires for safety climate and for
national culture from this doctoral study for any other developing country
which reflects similar construction operations environment.
Further research can also be recommended in the area of safety climate
within Pakistan, but this time to include Pakistani construction managers for
their safety attitudes and perceptions and then to compare the results of
perceptions and attitudes of construction workers and managers on safety
climate and managers’ safety practices.
Chapter 9
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
147
This research did not attempt to develop a cause and effect model of
relationship between national cultural dimensions and workers attitudes,
perceptions and managers’ safety practices. Therefore it is recommended to
study the cause and effect between workers attitudes perceptions factors,
managers’ safety practices and national cultural dimensions by using
structural equation modelling (SEM). This study will help, in-depth
understanding the behaviour of each variable and its direct/indirect link with
other variables.
For further future research it is recommended, to test the direct or indirect
influence of safety climate factors, that could be relevant to Pakistan
construction industry (i.e. regulatory environment, management
characteristics, worker characteristics, physical work environment and work
pressure) on safety climate. A conceptual model for safety climate for
Pakistan’s construction industry could then be proposed, and statistically
tested.
9.6. Closure
This research made fundamental contributions in three areas: 1) Examining of safety
climate and safe work behaviour of construction workers in a developing country
namely Pakistan; 2) evaluating the influence of national culture of construction
workers on their safety attitudes, perceptions and safe performance; and (3)
exploring the influence of national culture on the safety practices of managers in the
Pakistani construction industry. The questionnaire surveys, face-to-face interviews
and statistical data analyses provided useful insights into the influence of national
culture on workers attitudes, perceptions, and behaviour and managers safety
practices.
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
148
References
.
Advisory Committee on the Safety of Nuclear Installations (ACSNI ) (1993) “Organizing
for Safety”. Third Report of the Human Factors Study Group of the Advisory Committee
on Safety in the Nuclear Industry. Health & Safety Commission, HMSO, London.
Agrilla, J.A. (1999) “Construction Safety Management Formula for Success”. Proceedings
of the 2
nd
International Conference of International Council for Research and
Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB) Working Commission W99, Honolulu,
pp. 33–36.
Ahmed, M. (1996) “The Crescent and the Sword: Islam, the Military and Political
Legitimacy in Pakistan”. Middle East Journal, 50 (3), pp. 372-386.
Ahmed, M. (1997). Education: Pakistan in Perspective 1947-1997. Oxford University Press,
Karachi, pp. 238-275.
Ahmed, S.M., Tang, S.L. and Poon, T.K. (1999) “Problems of Implementing Safety
Programs on Construction Sites and Some Possible Solutions”. Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference of International Council for Research and Innovation in
Building and Construction (CIB) Working Commission W99. Honolulu, pp. 525–529.
Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. (1980) Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behaviour.
Prentice-Hall.Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Andriessen, J.H. (1978) “Safe Behaviour and Safety Motivation”. Journal of Occupational
Accidents, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, pp. 363-376.
Awan, T. (2001) “Occupational Health and Safety in Pakistan”. Asia Labour Update Report
No. 39.
Baba, K. (1996) “Development of Construction Management Based on Regional Culture’’.
In Langford, D.A. and Retik, A. (Eds), The Organization and Management of
Construction: Shaping Theory and Practice, Vol. 1. E & FN Spon, London.
Baxendale, T. and Jones, O. (2000) “Construction Design and Construction Management
Safety Regulations in Practice: Progress and Implementation”, International Journal of
Project Management, 18 (1), pp. 33–40.
Bentil, K.K. (1990) “Construction Site Safety: A Matter of Life and Costs”. Cost
Engineering, 32 (3), pp. 7-10.
Berg, U. (1999) “Safety Campaign: Fall Risk in Construction Work, Implementation of
Safety and Health on Construction Sites”. Proceedings of the 2
nd
International
Conference of International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and
Construction (CIB) Working Commission W99. Honolulu, pp. 853-866.
Berger, J. (1998) “The Health and Safety Protection Plan and the File Containing Features
of the Building According to ECC Directive (92/57)”. ME Rinker Lecture Series on
Safety and Health in Construction. University of Florida, Gainesville, US.
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
149
Bird, A. (2003) “The Impact of National Culture on Collaboration”. Proceedings of the
Symposium for Collaborating Across Professional Boundaries: From Education to
Practice. Chicago, IL. [http://www.stuart.iit.edu/ipro/papers/html/bird.htm].
Blockely, D. (1995) “Processes Re-Engineering for Safety”. Proceedings of the Conference
on Risk Engineering and Management in Civil, Mechanical and Structural Engineering.
ICE, London, pp. 51-66.
Bomel Ltd. (2001) “Improving Health and Safety in Construction Phase 1: Data Collection,
Review and Structuring”. Contract Research Report 386/2001. HSE Books, Sudbury.
Bond, M.H. (1996) Chines Values, in Bond, M.H. (Ed), The Handbook of Chinese
Psychology, Oxford University Press, Hong Kong.
Britannica online (2003) http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9362009. Accessed on
March, 2003.
Brown, R.L. and Holmes, H. (1986) “The Use of a Factor-Analytic Procedure for Assessing
the Validity of an Employee Safety Climate Model”. Accident Analysis and Prevention,
18(6), pp. 455-470.
Budworth, N. (1997) “The Development and Evaluation of a Safety Climate Measure as a
Diagnostic Tool in Safety Management”. Journal of the Institution of Occupational
Safety and Health, 1, pp.19–29.
C.I.A. (2005) http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/pk.html. Accessed on
April, 2005.
Canter, D. and Donald, I. (1990) “Accident by Design: Environmental, Attitudinal and
Organizational Aspects of Accidents, Culture Space History”. Proceedings of the 11
th
International Conference of the International Association of the Study of People and
Their Physical Settings. Turkey, pp. 228-232.
Carthey, J., Hale, A.R., Heming, B. and Kirwan, B. (1994) “Extension of the Model of
Behavior in the Control of Danger: Literature Review and Analysis of Model
Development Needs”. Report to the Health & Safety Executive UK. Industrial
Ergonomics Group, School of Manufacturing & Mechanical Engineering, University of
Birmingham.
Chan, E.H.W. (1997) “Amicable Dispute Resolution in the People’s Republic of China and
its Implications for Foreign Related Construction Disputes’’. Construction Management
and Economics, 15 (6), pp. 539-548.
Chew, D.L.E. (1988) “Effective Occupational Safety Activities: Findings in Three Asian
Developing Countries”. International Labour Review, 127, pp. 111- 125.
Cheyne, A., Cox, S., Oliver, A. and Tomas, J.M. (1998). “Modelling Safety Climate in the
Prediction of Levels of Safety Activity”. Work and Stress, 12, pp. 255-271.
Chhokar, J.S. and Wallin, J.A. (1984) “Improving Safety through Applied Behaviour
Analysis”. Journal of Safety Research, 15, pp. 141-151.
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
150
Chow, W.C., Yutaka, K. and Shields, D.M. (1994) “National Culture and the Preference for
Management Controls: An Exploratory Study of the Firm-Labour Market Interface”.
Accounting Organization and Society, 19 (4), pp. 381-400.
Coble, R.J. and Haupt, T.C. (1999) “Construction Safety in Developing Countries:
Implementation of Safety and Health on Construction Sites”. Proceedings of the 2
nd
International. Conference of International Council for Research and Innovation in
Building and Construction (CIB) Working Commission W99. Honolulu, pp. 903-908.
Cohen, A. (1977) “Factors in Successful Occupational Safety Programs”. Journal of Safety
Research, 9, pp. 168-178.
Cooper, M.D., (1998) Improving Safety Culture: A Practical Guide. Wiley, Chichester.
Cohen, A., Smith, M. and Anger, W. (1979) “Self-Protective Measures Against Workplace
Hazards”. Journal of Safety Research, 11, pp. 121-131.
Cooper, M.D. and Phillips, R.A. (1995) “Killing Two Birds With One Stone: Achieving
Quality Via Total Safety Management”. Leadership and Organizational Development
Journal, 16(8), pp. 3-9.
Cooper, M.D. and Phillips, R.A. (2004) “Exploratory Analysis of the Safety Climate and
Safety Behaviour Relationship”. Journal of Safety Research, 35, pp. 497-512.
Cooper, M.D., Phillips, R.A. Robertson, I.T. and Duff, A.R. (1991) “Improving Safety on
Construction Sites by the Utilization of Psychologically Based Techniques: Alternative
Approaches to the Measurement of Safety Behaviour”. Paper given at the 5
th
European
Congress of Psychology on Work and Organization, Rouen, France.
Cooper, M.D., Phillips, R.A., Sutherland, V.J., and Makin, P.J. (1994) “Reducing Accidents
Using Goal Setting and Feedback: A Field Study”. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 67, pp. 219-240.
Cox, S. and Cox. T. (1991) “The Structure of Employee Attitudes to Safety: A European
Example”. Work and Stress, 5(2), pp. 93-106.
Cox, S.J. and Cheyne, A.J.T. (2000) “Assessing Safety Culture in Offshore Environments”.
Safety Science, 34, pp. 111–129.
Cox, S. and Flin, R., (1998) “Safety Culture: Philosopher's Stone or Man of Straw?” Work
and Stress, 12, pp. 189-201.
Coyle, I., Saleeman, S.D. and Adams, N. (1995) “Safety Climate”. Journal of Safety
Research, 26, pp. 247-254.
Crawley, F.K. (1999) “The Change in Safety Management for Offshore Oil and Gas
Production Systems”. Institution of Chemical Engineers Transactions. IChemE, 77 (B),
pp. 143–148.
Dane, F.C. (1990) Research Methods. Brooks / Cole Publishing, Pacific Grove, California.
Datta, M. (2000) “Challenges Facing the Construction Industry in Developing Countries.
Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference on Construction in Developing
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
151
Countries: Challenges Facing the Construction Industry in Developing Countries.
Gaborone, Botswana, pp. 15-17.
Davies, V.J. and Tomasin, K. (1996) Construction Safety Handbook, (2
nd
edition). Thomas
Telford Publishing,London.
DeBobes, L. (1986) “The Psychological Factors in Accident Prevention”. Personnel
Journal, 65, pp. 34-38.
Dedobbeleer, N. and Beland, F. (1991) “A Safety Climate Measure for Construction Sites”.
Journal of Safety Research, 22, pp. 97-103.
Dedobbeleer, N. and German, P. (1987) “Safety Practices in the Construction Industry”.
Journal of Occupational Medicine, 29 (11), pp. 863-868.
Derr, C.B. and Laurent, A. (1989) “The Internal and External Career: A Theoretical and
Cross-Cultural Perspective”. In Arthur, M., Lawrence, P.R. and Hall, D.T. (Eds).
Diaz, R.I. and Cabrera, D.D. (1997) “Safety Climate and Attitude as Evaluation Measures of
Organizational Safety”. Accident Analysis and Preventions, 29(5), pp. 643-650.
Donald, I., Cantaer, D. and Chalk, J. (1991) “Measuring Safety Culture and Attitudes”.
Proceedings of the 1
st
International Conference on Health, Safety and Environment in
Oil and Gas Exploration and Production. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Duff, A.R., Robertson, I.T., Cooper, M.D. and Phillips, R. (1993) “Improving Safety on
Construction Sites by Changing Personnel Behaviour”. Health Safety Executive
Contract Research Report; No. 51/1993, Health and Safety Executive.
Eagly, A.H. and Chaiken, S. (1993) The Psychology of Attitudes. Harcourt Brace Jovaovich
Fort Worth.
Erez, M. and Early, P.C. (1993) Culture, Self-identity, and Work, Oxford University Press,
New York, NY.
Evans. P.A.L. (1992) “Management Development as a Glue Technology”. Human Resource
Planning, 15, pp. 85-105
Fang, D.P., Xie, F., Haung, X.Y. and Li, H. (2004) “Factor Analysis Based Studies on
Construction Workplace Safety Management in China”. International Journal of
Project Management, 22 (1), pp. 43-49.
Fellows, R. and Liu, A. (1997). Research Methods for Construction. (2
nd
edition). Blackwell
Science, Australia.
Flin, R., Conner, P.O. and Bryden, R. (2000) “Measuring Safety Climate: Identifying the
Common Features”. Safety Science, 34 (1-3), pp. 177-192.
Flin, R., Mearns, K., Fleming, M. and Gordon, R. (1996) “Risk Perception and Safety in the
Offshore Oil and Gas Industry”. Health and Safety Executives Offshore Technology
Report (OTH94 454), HSE Books, Sudbury.
f*ckuyama,F. (1995) Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity.
Penguin Publications, London.
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
152
Garavan, T.N. and O’Brien, F. (2001) “An Investigation into the Relationship between
Safety Climate and Safety Behaviours in Irish Organisations”. Irish Journal of
Management, 22 (1), pp. 141-170.
Gerbing, D.W. and Anderson, J.C. (1988) “An Updated Paradigm for Scale Development
Incorporating Unidimensionality and its Assessment”. Journal of Marketing Research
25, pp.186-192.
Gilkey, R.W. and Greenhalgh, L. (1991) “The Role of Personality in Successful
Negotiating”. In Breslin, J. W. & Rubin, J. Z. (Eds.), Negotiation Theory and Practice.
Cambridge: Program on Negotiation. pp. 279-290
Glendon, A.I. and Litherland, D.K. (2001) “Safety Climate Factors, Group Differences and
Safety Behaviour in Road Construction”. Safety Science, 39 (3), pp. 157-188.
Glendon, A.I. and McKenna, E.F. (1995) Human Safety and Risk Management. Chapman &
Hall, London.
Glendon, A.I. and Stanton, N.A. (2000) “Perspectives on Safety Culture”. Safety Science, 34
(1-3), pp. 193-214.
Glendon, A.I., Stanton, N.A. and Harrison, D. (1994) “Factor Analysing a Performance
Shaping Concepts Questionnaire”. In S. A. Robertson (Ed.). Contemporary
Ergonomics: Ergonomics for all. Taylor & Francis, London:
Glennon, D. (1982) “Safety Climate”. Australian Safety News, pp. 23-28.
Government of Pakistan (2005) www.pak.gov.pk . Accessed on March, 2005.
Grimaldi, J. V. (1970) “The Measurement of Safety Engineering Performance”. Journal of
Safety Research, 2(3), pp. 137-159.
Guldenmund, F.W. (2000) “The Nature of Safety Culture: A Review of Theory and
Research”. Safety Science, 34, pp. 215-257.
Gun, R.T., (1993) “The Role of Regulations in the Prevention of Occupational Injury”.
Safety Science , 16, pp.47- 66.
Hair, J., Anderson, R. and Black, W. (1998) Multivariate Data Analysis. (5th edition),
Prentice-Hall International, INC., New Jersey
Halender, M. and Holborn, M. (1991) Sociology Themes and Perspectives. (3
rd
edition),
Collins Educational, London.
Hall, E.T. (1959) The Silent Language. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York, NY.
Hall, E.T. (1976) Beyond Culture. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York, NY.
Hall, E.T. and Hall, M.R. (1990) Understanding Cultural Differences. Inter-cultural Press,
Yarmouth, M.E
Hampden-Turner, C. and Trompenaars, F. (1993) The Seven Cultures of Capitalism.
Doubleday. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
153
Hazard Munro, B. (1997) Statistical Methods for Health Care Research. (3
rd
edition).
Lippincott, New York.
He, Z. (1995) “Risk Management for Overseas Construction Projects”. International
Journal of Project Management, 13 (4), pp.231-237.
Hinze, J. and Appelgate, L.L. (1991) “Costs of Construction Injuries”. Journal of
Construction Engineering and Management, 117 (3), pp. 537-550.
Hinze, J., Singh, A. and Coble, R.J. (1999) “Construction Safety in Developing Countries”
Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference of International Council for Research
and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB) Working Commission W99.
Honolulu, pp. 24-27.
Hinze, J.W. (1978). “Turnover, New Workers and Safety”. Journal of Construction Division
ASCE, Vol 104, No CO4, pp. 409-418.
Hinze, J.W. (1981). “Human Aspects of Construction Safety”. Journal of Construction
Division ASCE, Vol 107, No CO1, pp. 253-262.
Hinze, J. W. and Gordon, F. (1979) “Supervisor - Worker Relationship Affects Injury Rate”.
Journal of Construction Division ASCE ,Vol 105, No CO3, pp. 253-261.
Hinze, J.W. and Raboud, P. (1988) “Safety on Large Building Construction Projects.”
Journal of Construction Division ASCE, Vol 114, No 2, pp.497-509.
Hinze, J.W. (1997) Construction Safety. Prentice Hall Publications, New Jersey.
Hofmann, D.A., Jacobs, R. and Landy, R.L. (1995) “High Reliability Process Industries:
Individual, Micro, and Macro Organizational Influences on Safety Performance”.
Journal of Safety Research, 26, pp. 131-149.
Hofmann, D.A. and Stetzer, A. (1996) “A Cross-Level Investigation of Factors Influencing
Unsafe Behaviours and Accidents”. Personnel Psychology, 41, pp. 307– 339.
Hofstede, G. (1994) Culture and Organisations: Software of the Mind. Harper Collins
Publishers, London.
Hofstede, G. (1980) “Cultures' Consequences, International Differences in Work Related
Values”. Vol.5, Cross Cultural Research and Methodology Series. SAGE Publications,
London.
Hofstede, G. (1985) “The Interaction between National and Organizational Value Systems”.
Journal of Management Studies, Vol.22, pp. 347-357.
Hofstede, G. and Bond, M.H. (1988) “The Confucius Connection: From Cultural Roots to
Economic Growth”. Organizational Dynamics, 16, pp. 4-21.
Hope, C.A. (2004) “The Impact of National Culture on Transfer of Best Practice Operations
Management in Hotels in St.Lucia”. Tourism Management, 25, pp. 45-59.
Hosmer, D.W. and Lemeshow, S. (1989) Applied Logistic Regression. John Willey & Sons,
NY.
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
154
House, J. and Dorfman, M. (2001) “Project GLOBE: An Introduction”. Applied Psychology:
An International Review, 50 (4), pp. 489-505.
HSE (2002). “Statistical Data of Accidents”. http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm.
Accessed on March 2003.
Hussain, I. (1999) “Democracy in Doldrums”. Dawn online, available
http://www.dawn.com (16 October 1999). Accessed on march 2003.
Hussain, M. and Hussain, A. (1993) Pakistan: Problems of Governance. Vanguards
Publications, Lahore.
ILO (1987) “Safety, Health and Welfare on Construction Sites: A training manual”.
International Labour Organization (ILO), Geneva.
International Atomic Energy Authority (IAEA). (1998) “Developing Safety Culture in
Nuclear Activities-Practical Suggestions To Assist Progress”. SRS no.11. IAEA Vienna.
(ILO) (2003) Year Book of Labour Statistics. International Labour Organization ILO
Publications Series.
Islam, N. (2004) “Sifarish, Sycophants, Power and Collectivism: Administrative Culture in
Pakistan”. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 70 (2), pp. 311-330.
Jamal, A. (1998) “Can We Learn from the Perceptions and Consumption Practices of
Transnationals South Asia Communities Living in the West”. Proceeding of Conference
of Asia Academy of Management, Hong Kong, pp. 104-110.
Jannady, T.M.O. (1996) “Factors Affecting the Safety of the Construction Industry”.
Building Research and Information, 24 (2), pp. 108-112.
Jaselskis, E.J. and Suazo, G.A.R. (1994) “A Survey of Construction Site Safety in
Honduras”. Construction Management and Economics, 12, pp. 245-255.
Jonson, K.M. (1982) “Diagnostic Analysis of Safety Issues”. Proceedings of the 1
st
National
Conference on Industrial Safety, Sydney.
Kaiser, H.F. (1974) “An Index of Factorial Simplicity”. Psychometrika 39, pp. 31-36.
Kandola, B. S. (1997) “Risk Based Approach to Fire Safety Engineering”. Fire Engineers
Journal, pp. 21–26.
Kaplan, R. and Saccuzzo, D.P. (1993) Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications &
Issues. Brooks & Cole Publications, California.
Karau, S.J. and Williams, K.D. (1993) “Social Loafing: A meta-analytic review and
theoretical integration”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, pp. 681-786.
Kartam, N.A. and Bouz, R.G. (1998) “Fatalities and Injuries in Kuwait Construction
Industry”. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 30 (6), pp. 805-814.
Khilji, S.E. (1999) “Management in Pakistan”. International Encyclopedia of Business and
Management. Warner, M. (ed). International Thomson, London.
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
155
Khilji, S.E. (2001) “Human Resource Management in Pakistan”. In P. Budhwar and D. Yaw
(eds) Human Resource Management in Developing Countries. Routledge. London.
Khilji, S.E. (2002) “Modes of Convergence and Divergence: An Integrative View of
Multinational Practices in Pakistan”. International Journal of Human Resource, 13 (2),
pp. 232-253.
Khilji, S.E. (2003) “To Adapt or Not to Adapt: Exploring the Role of National Culture in
HRM – A Study of Pakistan”. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 3
(1), pp. 121–144.
Khilji, S.E. (2004) “Whiter Tradition? Evidence of Generational Differences in HR
Satisfaction from Pakistan”. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 4(2)
pp. 141-156.
King, R.W. and Hudson, R. (1985) Construction Hazard and Safety Handbook. Butterworth,
London.
Kirwan, B. (1998) “Safety Management Assessment and Task Analysis—A Missing Link?”
In Hale, A. and Baram, M. (Eds.), Safety Management: The Challenge of Change.
Elsevier, Oxford, pp. 67–92.
Kluckhohn, F.R. and Strodtbeck, F.L. (1961) Variations in Value Orientations. Harper
Collins, New York.
Kohen, E. (1999) “Safety and Construction in India: Implementation of Safety and Health
on Construction Sites”. Proceedings of the 2
nd
International. Conference of
International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB)
Working Commission W99. Honolulu, pp.
Komaki, J., Barwick, D.D. and Scott, L.R. (1978) “A Behavioural Approach to
Occupational Safety: Pinpointing and Reinforcing Safe Performance in a Food
Manufacturing Plant”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, pp. 434-445.
Kothari, R.K., Ed, K. and Pan, C.S. (1995) “Safety in Developing Countries: Professional
and Bureaucratic Problems”. ASCE Journal of Construction, Engineering, and
Management. 121 (3), pp. 261-265.
Labour Force Survey Report (2001) Department of Labour, Govt. of Pakistan, Islamabad.
Lagrosen, S. (2002) “Exploring the Impact of Culture on Quality Management”.
International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management, 20 (4), pp. 473-487.
Laitinen, H. and Ruohomaki, I. (1994) “The Effects of Feedback and Goal Setting on Safety
Performance at Two Construction Sites”. Safety Science, 24 (1), pp. 61-73.
Lai, K.C., Tang,S.L. and Poon, S.W. (1996) “Management Effort and Safety Performance of
Construction Projects”. Asia Engineer, Journal of HKIE, January Issue,pp.26-28
Langford, D., Rowlinson, S. and Sawacha, E. (2000) “Safety Behaviour and Safety
Management: Its Influence on the Attitudes of Workers in the UK Construction
Industry”. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 7 (2), pp.133–140.
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
156
Larcher, P. and Sohail, M. (1999) “Review of Safety in Construction and Operation for the
WS&S Sector”. Report Summary of WELL Task No.166 (Part 1).
Latif, S. (1997) “Management Learning in National Context”. [Unpublished PhD Thesis],
Helen Management College, UK.
Laufer, A. (1987) “Construction Accident Cost and Management Safety Motivation”.
Journal of Occupational Accidents, 8, pp. 295-315.
Laukkanen, T. (1999) “Construction Work and Education: Occupational Health and Safety
Reviewed”. Construction Management and Economics, 17 (1), pp. 53–62.
Leather, P.J. (1987) “Safety and Accidents in the Construction Industry: A Work Design
Perspective”. Work and Stress, 1 (2), pp. 167-174.
Levitt, R.E. and Samelson, N.M. (1993) Construction Safety Management. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. New York.
Levitt, R.E. and Parker, H.W. (1976) “Reducing Construction Accidents-Top Management's
Role”. Journal of Construction Division ASCE, Vol 102 No CO3, pp. 465-478.
Lindsay, F.D. (1992) “Successful Health and Safety Management. The Contribution of
Management Audit”. Safety Science, 15 (2), pp. 387-402.
Lingard, H. and Rowlinson, S. (1994) “Construction Site Safety in Hong Kong”. Journal of
Construction Management and Economics, 12, pp. 501–510.
Lingard, H. and Rowlinson, S. (1997) “Behaviour-Based Safety Management in Hong
Kong’s Construction Industry”. Journal of Safety Research, 28, pp. 243–256.
Lingard, H. and Rowlinson, S. (1998) “Behaviour-Based Safety Management in Hong
Kong’s Construction Industry: The Results of a Field Study”. Construction
Management and Economics, 16, pp. 481–488.
Litherland, D. (1997) “Safety Climate: An Investigation of Its Underlying Factor Structure
and the Relationship with Safety Behaviour”. [Unpublished Bachelor Thesis]. School of
Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
Low, S.P. (1995) “Western Generic Business and Corporate Strategies: Lessons from the
Thirty-Six Chinese Classical Strategies of War”. Marketing Intelligence and Planning,
13 (6), pp. 34-40.
Low, S.P. (1997). “Thick Face, Black Heart and the Marketing of Construction Services in
China”. Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 15 (8), pp. 221-226.
Low, S.P. and Shi, Y. (2002) “An Exploratory Study of Hofstede’s Cross-Cultural
Dimensions in Construction Projects”. Management Decision, 40 (1), pp. 7-16.
Lu, C.S.and Shang, K.C. (2005) “An Empirical Investigation of Safety Climate in Container
Terminal Operators”. Journal of Safety Research, 36, pp. 297-308.
Lubega, H., Kiggundu,B.M. and Tindiwensi, D. (2001). “An Investigation into the Causes
of Accidents in the Construction Industry in Uganda”.
http://buildnet.csir.co.za/cdcproc/dpcs/2nd/lubega_h.pdf. Accessed on March 2003.
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
157
Lutness, J. (1987) “Measuring Up: Assessing Safety With Climate Surveys”. Occupational
Health and Safety, 56(2), pp. 20-26.
Lyon, P. (1993) “Epilogue” In P. James (ed.). Pakistan Chronicle. Hurst, London.
Malik, I.H. (1994) “Governability Crisis in Pakistan: Policies of Authority, Ideology and
Ethnicity”. The Round Table. London. Carfax Publishing, London. pp 332-341.
Malik, I.H. (1996) “The Sate and the Civil Society”. Asia Survey, 36 (7), pp.71-79.
Margolis, B. (1973) “Psychological-Behavioural Factors in Accident Control”. Proceedings
of the ASSE Professional Development Conference: Accident Causation, Dallas.
Mason, S. and Simpson, G. (1995) “Measuring Safety Attitudes to Target Management
Actions”. The Safety and Health Practitioner, November., pp.17– 20.
Matilla, M. and Hyodynmaan, M. (1988) “Promoting Job Safety in Building: An
Experiment on the Behaviour Analysis Approach”, Journal of Occupational Accidents,
9, pp. 255-276.
Matilla, M., Rantanen, E. and Hytinen, M. (1994) “The Quality of Work Environment,
Supervision and Safety in Building Construction”. Safety Science, 17, pp. 257-268.
McClelland, D. C. (1985) Human Motivation. Scott, Foresman. Glenview, IL.
McDonald, N., Hrymak, V. and Gonzalez, J. (2001). “Safety Behaviour in the Construction
Industry”. Report to Health and Safety Authority, Dublin & Health and Safety Executive,
Northern Ireland.
McKenzie, J., Gibb, A.G.F. and Bouchlaghem, N.M. (1999) “Communication of Health and
Safety in Design Phase”. Implementation of Safety and Health on Construction. Sites.
Proceedings of the 2
nd
International. Conference of International Council for Research
and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB) Working Commission W99.
Honolulu. pp. 419-426.
Mearns, K., Flin, R., Fleming, M. and Gordon, R. (1997) “Human and Organisational
Factors in Offshore Safety”. HSE Report OTH 543, HM Stationary Office, Norwich,
UK.
Mearns, K., Flin, R., Gordon, R. and Fleming, M. (1998) “Measuring Safety Climate on
Offshore Installations”. Work and Stress, 12, pp. 238-254.
Mearns, K., Whitaker, S. and Flin, R. (2003) “Safety Climate, Safety Management Practice
and Safety Performance in Offshore Environment”. Safety Science, 41(8), pp. 641-680.
Meshkati, N. (1995) “The Culture Context of Safety Culture: A Conceptual Model and
Experimental Study in Safety Culture in Nuclear Installations”. Proceedings of the
International Topical Meeting on Safety Culture in Nuclear Installations, Vienna,
Austria , pp. 261-270.
Mohamed, S. (1999) “Empirical Investigation of Construction Safety Management
Activities and Performance in Australia”. Safety Science, 33, pp. 129-142
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
158
Mohamed, S. (2002) “Safety Climate in Construction Site Environments”. ASCE Journal of
Construction Engineering and Management, 128(5), pp. 375-383.
National Safety Council (1999) “Accident Facts (1052-1997)”. National Safety Council,
Itasca, IL.
Neal, A. and Griffin, M.A. (2000) “Perceptions of Safety at Work: A Framework for
Linking Safety Climate to Safety Performance, Knowledge, and Motivation”. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 5, pp. 347-358
Neal, A. and Griffin, M. A. (2004) “Safety Climate and Safety at Work”. In Psychology of
Workplace Safety, (eds) J. Berling & M.R. Frone, American Psychological Association,
Washington, pp. 15-34.
Newman, K.L and Nollen, S. (1996) “Culture and Congruence: The Fit Between
Management Practices and National Culture”. Journal of International Business Studies,
27 (4), pp. 753-778.
Ngowi, A.B. and Mothibi, J. (1996) “Culture and Safety at Work Site - A Case Study at
Botswana”. Alvez Dias L.M. and Coble R.J. (eds). In Implementation of Safety and
Health on Construction Sites, CIB W99 1996 Lisbon. Balkema, Rotterdam , pp. 417-
429.
Ngowi, A.B. (1997) “Impact of Culture on Construction Procurement”. Journal of
Construction Procurement, 3 (1), pp. 3-15.
Ngowi, A.B. (2000) “Impact of Culture on the Application of TQM in the Construction
Industry in Botswana”. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management,
17(1), pp. 3-15.
Nichols, M.L. and Marcus, A.A. (1990) “Empirical Studies of Candidate Leading Indicators
of Safety in Nuclear Power Plants: An Expanded View of Human Factors Research”.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society, pp. 876-880.
Niskanen, T. (1994) “Safety Climate in the Road Administration”. Safety Science, 17, pp.
237-255.
Norusis, M.J. (1994) SPSS Professional Statistics 6.1. SPSS Inc. Chicago.
Norusis, M.J. (1999) SPSS Regression Models 10.0. SPSS Inc. Chicago.
Ofori, G. (2000) “Challenges Facing the Construction Industry in Developing Countries”.
Proceedings of the 2
nd
International Conference on Construction in Developing
Countries: Challenges Facing the Construction Industry in Developing Countries.
Gaborone, Botswana.
Ojanen, K., Seppala, A. and Aaltonen, M. (1988) “Measurement Methodology for the
Effects of Accident Prevention Programs”. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment
and Health, 14, pp. 95-96.
Peckitt, S.J., Glendon, A.I. and Booth, I.T. (2002) “A Comparative Study of Safety Culture
in Construction Industry of Britain and the Caribbean”. Proceedings of the International
Symposium of the Working Commission CIB W92, Procurement Systems and
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
159
Technology Transfer. The Engineering Institute, University of West Indies, Trinidad &
Tobago. pp.195-214.
Pedhazur,E.J. (1997) Multiple Regression in Behavioural Research: Explanation and
Prediction. (3
rd
edition). Forth Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
Phua T.K. (2002) “Effects of Cultural Differences on Project Participants, Behaviour in
Construction Projects”. Proceedings of the International Symposium of the Working
Commission CIB W92, Procurement Systems and Technology Transfer. The
Engineering Institute, University of West Indies, Trinidad &Tobago, pp. 497-511.
Pipitsupaphol, T. and Wantanabe, T. (2000) “Identification of Root Causes of Labour
Accidents In The Thai Construction Industry”. Proceedings of Conference on Asia
Pacific Structural Engineering & Construction (APSEC), Malaysia, pp. 93-98.
Putnam, R.D. (1993) Making democracy work. Princeton University Press. Princeton. NJ.
Robertson, I.T., Duff, A.R., Marsh, T.W., Phillips, R.A., Weyman, A. K. and Cooper, M.D.
(1999) “Improving Safety on Construction Sites by Changing Personnel Behaviour:
Phase 2”. HSE Contract Research Report No. 229. Health and Safety Executive,
London. UK.
Rockwell, T.H. and Bhise, V.D. (1970) “Two Approaches to Non-Accident Measure for
Continues Assessment of Safety Performance”. Journal of Safety Research, 2, pp. 176-
187.
Rose, D. and Sullivan, O. (1993) Introducing Data Analysis for Social Scientists. Open
University Press, Buckingham.
Rosseau, D.M. (1990) Assessing Organizational Culture: The Case for Multiple Methods.
Josey-Bass. San Francisco.
Rowlinson, S. and Lingard, H. (1996) “Behavioural Safety Management in Hong Kong’s
Construction Industry; Success and Limitations, In Implementation of Safety and Health
on Construction Sites”. Alvez Dias L.M and Coble R.J. (eds), CIB W99 Lisbon.
Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 281-289.
Rundmo, T. (1994) “Associations between Safety and Contingency Measures and
Occupational Accidents on Offshore Petroleum Platforms”. Scandinavian Journal of
Work Environment and Health, 20, pp. 128–131.
Rundmo, T. (1997) “Associations Between Risk Perception And Safety”. Safety Science, 24,
pp. 197–209.
Rundmo, T. and Hale, A.R. (2003) “Managers’ Attitudes Towards Safety and Accident
Prevention”. Safety Science, 41, pp. 557-574.
Samovar, L.A., Porter, R.E. and Jain, N.C. (1981) Understanding Intercultural
Communication. Wadsworth. Belmont, C.A.
Sawacha, E., Naoum, S. and Fong, D. (1999). “Factors Affecting Safety Performance on
Construction Sites”. International Journal of Project Management.17 (5), pp. 309–315.
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
160
Schein, E. H. (1997) Three Cultures of Management: The Key to Organizational Learning
in the 21st Century. - Internet document. http://learning.mit.edu/res/wp/10011.html.
Accessed on August 2002.
Schein, E.H. (1985) Organizational Culture and Leadership. Jossey-Bass, Oxford.
Schneider, B. (1990) Organizational Climate and Culture. . Jossey-Bass, Oxford.
Schroder, H.M. (1970) “Safety Performance Measurement”. Journal of Safety Research, 2,
pp. 188-195.
Sekaran, U. (1992) Research Methods for Business: A Skill Building Application. John
Wiley & Sons, USA.
Seppala, A. (1992) “Evaluation of Safety Measures, Their Improvement and Connections to
Occupational Accidents”. Referred to in Niskanen, T. (1994). Safety Climate in Road
Administration. Safety Science, 17, pp. 237-255.
Shah, H. (2003) “Identification of Root Causes of Accidents in Pakistan Construction
Industry”. [Unpublished Master Dissertation]. Griffith University, Queensland,
Australia.
Simon, J.M. (1991) “Construction Safety Performance Significantly Improves”.
Proceedings of 1
st
International Health, Safety and Environment Conference,
Netherlands, pp. 465-472.
Simonds, R.H. and Shafai-Sahrai, Y. (1977) “Factors Affecting Injury Frequency in 11
Matched Pairs of Companies”. Journal of Safety Research 9(3), pp. 120-127.
Siu, Oi-Ling., Phillips, D.R. and Leung, Tat-Wing. (2003) “Age Difference in Safety
Attitudes and Safety Performance in Hong Kong Construction Workers”. Journal of
Safety Research, 34, pp. 199-205.
Smallwood, J.J. (2000) Safety and Health Team Building. Construction Safety and Health
Management. Edited by Coble.R.J., Hinze, J. and Haupt, T. Prentice Hall Publications.
Smith, M.J., Cohen, H.H., Cohen, A. and Cleveland, R.J. (1978) “Characteristics of
Successful Safety Programs”. Journal of Safety Research, 10 (l), pp. 5-15.
Sparrow, P. and Wu, P.C. (1998) “Does National Culture Really Matter? Predicting HRM
Preferences of Taiwanese Employees”. Employees Relations, 20 (1), pp. 26-56.
Tabachnick, B.G. and Fidell, L.S. (2001) Using Multivariate Statistics. (4
th
Edition). Allyn
and Bacon.
Tam, C.M. and Fung, I. (1998) “Effectiveness of Safety Management. Strategies on
Safety Performance in Hong Kong”. Construction Management and Economics,
16, pp. 49-55
Tarrants, W.E. (1970) “A Definition of the Safety Measurement Problem”. Journal of Safety
Research, 2, pp. 106-108.
Tarrants W.E. (1980). “The Measurement of Safety Performance”. Garland STPM Press,
New York.
References
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
161
Tayeb, M. (1994) “Organisations and National Culture: Methodology Considered”,
Organisation Studies, 15, pp. 429-446.
Tayeb, M. (1997) “Islamic Revival in Asia and HRM”. Employees Relations, 19 (4), pp.
352-364.
Tijhaus W. (2002) “Improving Technology Transformation in the Construction Industry by
Understanding Culture’s Influences”. In Lewis, M. (ed). Proceedings of the
International Symposium of the Working Commission CIB W92, Procurement Systems
and Technology Transfer .The Engineering Institute, University of West Indies,
Trinidad & Tobago, pp. 513-530.
Tomas, J.M. and Oliver, A. (1995) “The Perceived Effect of Safety Climate on
Occupational Accidents”. Proceedings of the conference on work and well-being: An
agenda for Europe. University of Nottingham, UK.
Triandis, H.C., Brislin, R. and Hui, C.H. (1988) “Cross-cultural Training Across the
Individualism- Collectivism Divide”. International Journal of Inter-Cultural Relations,
Vol.12, pp. 269-289.
Turner, N. and Parker, S.K. (2004) “The Effect of TeamWork on Safety Process and
Outcomes”. In Psychology of Workplace Safety, (eds) J. Berling & M.R. Frone,
American Psychological Association, Washington, pp. 35-62.
Van Oudenhoven, J.P. (2001) “Do Organisations Reflect National Cultures? A Ten Nation
Study”. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25, pp. 89-107
Walker, M.B. (1995) “Group-Averaged Behavioural Feedback: An Evaluation of Its Utility
for Improving Employees’ Safety Behaviour”. [Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation],
Griffith University, Queensland, Australia.
Waring, A. (1992) “Developing a Safety Culture”. The Safety and Health Practitioner,
Vol.10, pp. 42– 44.
Weibye, B. (1996) “Safety Management Under Different Regimes”. In Offshore Northern
Seas (ONS) Conference, Stavanger, Norway.
Weiek, K., Sutcliffe, K. and Obstfeld, D. (1999) “Organizing For Reliability: Processes of
Collective Mindfulness”. Organizational Behaviour, 21, pp. 81-123.
Whittington, C., Livingston, A. and Lucas, B.A. (1992) “Research into Management,
Organisational and Human Factors in the Construction Industry”. HSE Research Report
No 45.
Williamson, A.M., Cairns, D. and Biancotti, D. (1997) “The Development of a Measure of
Safety Climate: The Role of Safety Perceptions and Attitudes”. Safety Science 25, (3),
pp. 15-27.
Zakaria, S. (1994) “Investment Culture in Pakistan”.[Unpublished MPhil Thesis],
University of Cambridge. UK.
Zohar, D. (1980) “Safety Climate in Industrial Organizations: Theoretical and Applied
Implications”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65(1), pp. 96-102.
Appendix A
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
162
Appendix A
Workers Attitudes, Perception Questionnaire (WAS)
Appendix A
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
163
1. Construction sites are dangerous places 0 1 2 3 4 5
2. My job carries a considerable level of risk. 0 1 2 3 4 5
3. I am rarely worried about being injured on the job 0 1 2 3 4 5
4. I find working with certain amount of risk exciting 0 1 2 3 4 5
5. I believe safe work habits improve production 0 1 2 3 4 5
6. I am capable of identifying potentially hazardous situations 0 1 2 3 4 5
7. Management acts decisively when a safety concern is raised 0 1 2 3 4 5
8. Working safely is the top priority for site managers, foremen & supervisors 0 1 2 3 4 5
9. Management ‘turns blind eye’ on basic safety issues 0 1 2 3 4 5
10. My site managers, foremen and supervisors always inform me of safety concerns
and issues.
0 1 2 3 4 5
11. I am never encouraged to raise any safety concern 0 1 2 3 4 5
12. Management do encourages feedback regarding safety issues from site workers
0
1
2
3
4
5
13. Safety training is provided on skills specific to individual tasks and equipment 0 1 2 3 4 5
14. Potential risks and consequences are identified in training 0 1 2 3 4 5
15. I am clear about what my responsibilities are for safety 0 1 2 3 4 5
16. I am aware of my trade relevant safety procedures 0 1 2 3 4 5
17. Safety inspections are carried out on regular basis 0 1 2 3 4 5
18. I believe that prevention of accidents is the responsibility of everyone 0 1 2 3 4 5
19. Good working relationship among the workers is often necessary for safety 0 1 2 3 4 5
20. I am not given enough time to get the job done safely 0 1 2 3 4 5
21. Under work pressure it is normal to take shortcuts at the expense of safety 0 1 2 3 4 5
22. Usually I don’t get the right equipment to do the job safely 0 1 2 3 4 5
23. All equipment and materials supplied to work safely are in good conditions 0 1 2 3 4 5
24. Working with defective equipment is not allowed under any circ*mstances 0 1 2 3 4 5
25. Personal protective equipments are useful in increasing the safety level 0 1 2 3 4 5
Attitudes and Perceptions Questionnaire
To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements affecting safety in your
job? Please circle the number on the right against each question that best indicates your
Not relevant Strongly disagree Disagree Not sure Agree Strongly agree
0 1 2 3 4 5
Appendix B
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
164
Appendix B
Workers Behavioural Survey (WBS)
Appendix B
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
165
Background information
Age: _______
Company/Subcontractor for which you work:
___________________________________
Job Title: ___________________________
Years working in:
a) Construction industry: ___________
b) Your Present Job: ___________
c) Time on this site: ___________
Safety Training received.
Have you received safety training from your employee?
Yes No
If, Yes then How long?
Hours Days Weeks
Safety Behaviour Questionnaire for Construction
Workers
Appendix B
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
166
1
SCAFFOLDING
1. How frequently do you work on scaffolds in your job?
IMAGINE THE FOLLOWING SITUATION: YOU HAVE TO CARRY OUT SIMILAR TASKS
TO YOUR PRESENT JOB, BUT THE JOB REQUIRES THAT YOU HAVE TO WORK AT
HEIGHTS, ON A SCAFFOLD.
SITUATION 1: - Once you are ready to start your job, you climb the scaffold up to the level
you must work at. Once there you realise that the scaffold is not totally boarded.
SITUATION 2: Now imagine that the scaffold is correctly boarded, but you find that some
guard-rails are missing.
1. In your opinion, is it risky to work in this situation? If
‘yes,’ how risky?
Low risk Medium risk High risk
2. How frequently do you find this situation on this site?
Rare Usual Frequent
3. What would you do if you that situation happened
today, on this site?
Stop working/
don’t use it
Use it / follow
working
Never or very little
(do not go further with this area)
Sometimes Often or Always
1. In your opinion, is it risky to work in this situation? If
‘yes,’ how risky?
Low risk Medium risk High risk
2. How frequently you find this situation on this site?
Rare Usual Frequent
3. What would you do if this situation happened today, on
this site?
Stop working/
don’t use it
Use it / follow
working
Appendix B
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
167
SITUATION 3.- Now imagine that the scaffold looks OK, but you realise that a ladder has not
been provided (or has been removed) and you must face the alternative of climbing up or down
the scaffold.
1. In your opinion, is it risky to work in this situation? If
‘yes,’ how risky?
Low risk Medium risk High risk
2. How frequently do you find this situation on this site?
Rare Usual Frequent
3. What would you do if that situation happened today, on
this site?
Stop working/
don’t use it
Use it / follow
working
2
USING LADDERS
2. How frequently do you use ladders in your job?
Never or very little
(do not go further with this area)
Sometimes Often or Always
IMAGINE THE FOLLOWING SITUATION: YOU HAVE TO CARRY OUT SIMILAR TASKS
TO YOUR PRESENT JOB, BUT THE JOB REQUIRES THAT YOU HAVE TO USE ONE OR
SEVERAL LADDERS.
SITUATION 4.- You are ready to start your job when you realise that the ladder you need to use
to climb up to a higher level is not tied or secured.
1. In your opinion, is it risky to work in this situation? If
‘yes,’ how risky?
Low risk Medium risk High risk
2. How frequently do you find this situation on this site?
Rare Usual Frequent
3. What would you do if that situation happened today, on
this site?
Stop working/
don’t use it
Use it / follow
working
Appendix B
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
168
SITUATION 5: Now imagine that the ladder is tied but you realise that it is broken or
somehow defective.
1. In your opinion, is it risky to work in this situation? If
‘yes,’ how risky?
Low risk Medium risk High risk
2. How frequently do you find this situation on this site?
Rare Usual Frequent
3. What would you do if that situation happened today, on
this site?
Stop working/
don’t use it
Use it / follow
working
SITUATION 6: Now imagine that the ladder looks OK but it is not 1 metre (approximately 5
rungs) above the landing place you are intended to work in.
1. In your opinion, is it risky to work in this situation? If
‘yes,’ how risky?
Low risk Medium risk High risk
2. How frequently do you find this situation on this site?
Rare Usual Frequent
3. What would you do if that situation happened today, on
this site?
Stop working/
don’t use it
Use it / follow
working
3
WORKING ON ROOFS
3. How frequently do you work on roofs in your job?
Never or very little
(do not go further with this area)
Sometimes Often or Always
IMAGINE THE FOLLOWING SITUATION: YOU HAVE TO CARRY OUT SIMILAR TASKS
THAN IN YOUR PRESENT JOB, BUT THE JOB REQUIRES THAT YOU HAVE TO WORK AT
HEIGHTS, ON A ROOF.
Appendix B
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
169
SITUATION 7: Once you are ready to start your job, you climb up to the roof and you realise it
is a fragile roof and crawling boards have not been provided.
1. In your opinion, is it risky to work in this situation? If
‘yes,’ how risky?
Low risk Medium risk High risk
2. How frequently do you find this situation on this site?
Rare Usual Frequent
3. What would you do if that situation happened today, on
this site?
Stop working/
don’t use it
Use it / follow
working
SITUATION 8: Now imagine that what you find up there is a roof without edge protection,
and personal protection (as harness, etc.) has not been provided.
1. In your opinion, is it risky to work in this situation? If
‘yes,’ how risky?
Low risk Medium risk High risk
2. How frequently do you find this situation on this site?
Rare Usual Frequent
3. What would you do if that situation happened today, on
this site?
Stop working/
don’t use it
Use it / follow
working
SITUATION 9: Now imagine that the roof is OK but you have to work in bad weather
(windy)
1. In your opinion, is it risky to work in this situation? If
‘yes,’ how risky?
Low risk Medium risk High risk
2. How frequently do you find this situation on this site?
Rare Usual Frequent
3. What would you do if that situation happened today, on
this site?
Stop working/
don’t use it
Use it / follow
working
4. Personal suggestions to improve safety
Appendix C
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
170
Appendix C
Managers Survey – I (MS-I)
Appendix C
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
171
Managers Interview Questionnaire
1
Age: ______________
Company/subcontractor for which you work: ____________________________
Job Title: ________________________________
Years working in: a) Construction industry: _________________
b) Your present position: _________________
c) Time working in this site: _________________
Personal competence in Safety:
4. Training received: ______________________________
5. Quality of this training: How long? When? Where? ___________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
1. Background information for managers, supervisors,
and safety representatives
Appendix C
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
172
This section aims to find out the existence of any documented safety policy and site
safety plans and their effectiveness
1. Does the company have a documented safety policy?
Y N
2. Does the company have documented site safety plans?
Y N
3. Are those site safety plans fully enforced?
Y N
4. How would you rate the effectiveness of those plans in promoting
site safety?
Low Medium High
5. Main Reason for that particular rating
No Plan of Action
Some ideas of how to handle
with safety, but not integrated
in a comprehensive documented
plan of action.
There is a plan of action
A written one, comprehensive,
effective one, addressing the
problems of the site
Good plan of action
Clear plan of actions, fully
enforced. Having high
effectiveness in promoting the
safety on the site.
2. Safety Plan
Appendix C
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
173
This sections aims to find out if the company has any safety criterion for recruitment
and training for their workforce [includes managers, supervisors and workers]
6. Does the company have any safety related criterion for;
Workers’ recruitment (experience, safety training)
Y N
Managers and supervisors’ recruitment (experience, safety training).
Y N
Sub-contractors selection (past safety records)
Y N
7. Does the company have a safety-training program?
Y N
8. If yes then at what level (managers, supervisors and workforce).
9. How effective would you rate the role of that safety-training program
in enhancing the safety level?
Low Medium High
3. Competence of the workforce and safety training
Appendix C
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
174
1. The company is concerned about workforce and subcontractors’ competence at the time
recruitment?
NO
Safety backgrounds are rarely considered as an
important issue in operatives and contractors’
recruitment
YES
Company considers safety background at the
time of recruitment.
2.The company is concerned about managers / supervisors’ competence at the time of
Recruitment
NO
Safety background are rarely considered as an
important issue in operatives recruitment
YES
Company considers safety background at the
time of recruitment.
3. The company provides safety training for workers.
Low
Company training is
reduced to an induction
program
Medium
Company training on safety
considers more then an induction
program and takes over different
times and phases along site life cycle
High
Company has an articulated
safety training aimed both to an
active training on safety and to
an active feedback of the
effectiveness of the training
program.
4.The company provides safety training for managers and supervisors
Low
Company training is
reduced to an induction
program
Medium
Company training on safety
considers more then an induction
program and takes over different
times and phases along site life cycle
High
Company has an articulated
safety training aimed both to an
active training on safety and to
an active feedback of the
effectiveness of the training
program.
Appendix C
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
175
This section aims to find out existence of any safety monitoring activity and to find
out what channels are being used for hazard, accidents and incidents/near misses
reporting.
10. Does your organization monitor safety or keep safety records?
Y N
11. What monitoring activities are used on site?
12. What is recorded as safety related aspects (personal injuries,
structural damage, mechanical damage…)
13. Reporting System:
Hazard Reporting
• What are the formal channels for reporting hazards?
Accident Reporting
• What are the formal channels for reporting accidents?
Incident / Near misses
• Do you consider incidents / near misses in your
reporting system?
Y N
• What are the formal channels for reporting incidents /
near misses?
4. Safety Monitoring & Accident Reporting System
Appendix C
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
176
Existence of site safety monitoring policy
No Site safety monitoring
policy
May be a few ideas to monitor
site safety in general, but not in
particular.
There is a site safety
monitoring policy
Site monitoring policy does
exists, but no effective channels
are used to monitor and not
much site safety related aspects
are recorded
.Good site safety monitoring
policy
Clear site safety monitoring
policy, effective channels are
used to monitor, site safety
aspects are recorded very
efficiently
Quality of reporting system
Low
.Company doesn’t have any
proper hazard, accident and
incident reporting system, only
a few accidents are reported
Medium
Company does have a reporting
system for accidents and
hazards conditions on the site,
but incidents and near misses
are not taken into account for
High
Company does have a efficient
reporting systems which
includes not only accidents and
hazards reporting but as well as
incidents/near misses too
Appendix C
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
177
This section aims to check the quality of communication channels used to promote safety in
the workplace.
14. Is communication on safety, important for the company?
Y N
What kinds of communication channels are normally used by the company when
dealing with safety related aspects?
15. Generally, how would you rate the effectiveness of those
communication channels combined used by your organization in
promoting the safety in the workplace?
Low Medium High
Verbal communication
o Meetings
o Team briefings
o One-to-one
discussions
Observed communication
o Regular inspection
tours
o Joint consultation
meetings
o Presentations/trainings
sessions and workshops
Written communication
o Policy
statements
o Posters
o Performance
standards
External communication
o Reporting accident
and ill health
o Liaison with statutory
undertakings and bodies.
5. Communication in the workplace
Appendix C
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
178
16. Main reason for that particular rating
This sections aims to explore what degree the main contractor has assumed the
responsibility of all
site staff, the degree and difficulties it can have in co-operating with subcontractor ,and
general employees on safety related aspects
17. Responsibility for Safety (Please tick only one)
Does the main contractor take responsibility for the safety duties and
rights of all site staff?
All some none
If some responsibilities are taken, which ones?
18. Co-operation
What is the level of cooperation between the main contractor and the
different sub-contractors to handle safety on site?
Low Medium High
Is the input by different subcontractors or their safety representatives,
taken into account in safety meetings and related discussion?
Effectiveness of the quality of that communication
Low
It is mere informative
communication without a
clear link with safety level
Medium
Communication seems to be
useful to keep the level of
safety in workplace.
High
Communication seems to be
useful to enhance the level of
safety in the workplace.
6. Responsibility for safety in the work place& Co-operation
Appendix C
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
179
Y N
To what level, would subcontractors’ employees follow safety related
decisions made independently by the main contractor?
Low Medium High
Would that level be improved through subcontractor’s mediation?
Y N
Assumption of responsibility by main contractor for the general level of safety in
workplace.
None
Main contractor tries to
delegate her legal
responsibility on
subcontractors and workers
Some
Main contractor assumes
only some responsibilities
for the general safety of the
work place
All
Main contractor assumes its
responsibility for the general safety
of the workplace.
General appreciation of the quality of co-operation between main contractor and sub
contractor
Low
Subcontractor rarely
cooperates in the workplace in
safety aspects.
Medium
Subcontractors are co-
ordinated with the main
contractor in safety aspects
High
Sub contractors are highly
involved in co0operate with main
contractor and others to guarantee
safety in the workplace
Degree of respect of each others decision on safety aspects between main contractors’ and
sub contractors.
Low
There is no degree of respect
of each others decisions on
safety aspects
Medium
To some extent they both
respect each other decision,
although it looks more like
compliance with main
contractor’s ideas and
intervention rather then a
active involvement with
safety
High
Both highly respect each others
decisions, as they co-operation as
an important variable to handle
with safety in site. A good level of
cooperation among the different
agents is actively pursued
Appendix C
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
180
This section aims to record particular ideas of the different managers and supervisors to
improve safety in the workplace
7. Personal suggestions to improve safety
Appendix D
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
181
Appendix D
Managers Survey – II (MS-II)
Appendix D
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
182
1. The company has a highly effective safety plan for site 0 1 2 3 4 5
2. Company does have a safety related criteria for workers’ recruitment 0 1 2 3 4 5
3. Company does have safety related criteria for Managers and supervisors’
recruitment
0 1 2 3 4 5
4. Company does have a safety related criteria for sub-contractors selection 0 1 2 3 4 5
5. Company does have a highly effective training program for workers 0 1 2 3 4 5
6. Company does have a highly effective training program for managers and
supervisors
0 1 2 3 4 5
7. Company does have a safety monitoring policy and keep safety records 0 1 2 3 4 5
8. Company has an effective hazard reporting system 0 1 2 3 4 5
9. Company has an effective incident/near misses and accident reporting system 0 1 2 3 4 5
10. Communication on safety is an important issue for the company. 0 1 2 3 4 5
11. Communication channels/means used by the company proves to be highly
effective in promoting the safety in the workplace
0 1 2 3 4 5
12. Main contractor takes all responsibility for the safety duties and rights of all site
staff
1
2
3
4
5
13. There is a high level of cooperation between main contractor and different
subcontractor (s) to handle safety at site.
0 1 2 3 4 5
14. Sub contractors’ employees highly follow all safety related decisions made
independently by the main contractor
0 1 2 3 4 5
Managers Interview Questionnaire
To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements affecting safety in your job? Please
circle the number on the right against each question that best indicates your opinion.
Not relevant Strongly disagree Disagree Not sure Agree Strongly agree
0 1 2 3 4 5
Appendix E
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
183
Appendix E
National Cultural Survey (NCS)
For Both Workers and Managers
Appendix E
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
184
1. Major decisions regarding site safety issues, always take place after consulting
with site workers / subcontractors
1 2 3 4 5
2. Managers and superiors do encourage feedback regarding safety issues from site
workers
1 2 3 4 5
3. I am always encouraged to raise any safety concern with my site supervisor 1 2 3 4 5
4. Safety problems are openly discussed between workers and supervisors 1 2 3 4 5
5. Workers are always being consulted regarding preparation of site safety plans 1 2 3 4 5
6. Generally workers follow safety rules without being told to do so 1 2 3 4 5
7. I am allowed to act decisively if I find any situation contrary to safe conditions on
site
1 2 3 4 5
8. Safety rules should not be broken, even when worker believes it affects the
production
1 2 3 4 5
9. Safety decisions made by the management usually seems to be more effective then
decisions made by workers
1 2 3 4 5
10. Workers loose respect foe a supervisor, who asks them for their input before he
makes any safety decision
1 2 3 4 5
11. Personally I enjoy the risk aspects associated with my job 1 2 3 4 5
12. Many accidents just happen, there is little one can do to avoid them
1
2
3
4
5
13. I prefer to work with larger company as they have more effective safety practices
on site than the smaller one
1 2 3 4 5
14. I often feel nervous or tense at work 1 2 3 4 5
15. A company should have major responsibility for the health and welfare of its
injured worker
1 2 3 4 5
16. Co-workers often give tips to each other on how to work safely 1 2 3 4 5
17. A safe place to work has a lot of personal meaning to me and my co-workers 1 2 3 4 5
18. It would help in improving the site safety, if my co-workers support safe
behaviour
1 2 3 4 5
19. Safety training can help me in improving my attitude to work more safely 1 2 3 4 5
20. Safety decisions made by me alone are usually more effective then decisions made
by my co-workers together
1 2 3 4 5
Cultural influence Questionnaire
To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements affecting safety in your
job? Please circle the number on the right against each question that best indicates your opinion.
Strongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly disagree
1 2 3 4 5
Appendix E
Influence of National Culture on Construction Safety Climate in Pakistan
185
21. It is not always important to have a good working relationship with my supervisor 1 2 3 4 5
22. I prefer the company having less strict rules and where I feel easy to work with, to
the company having more strict rules and long working hours to follow
1 2 3 4 5
23. When workers ignore safety procedures at my workplace, I feel it is none of my
business
1 2 3 4 5
24. I will not change my attitude towards safety rules, even if my supervisor praises
safe work behaviour
1 2 3 4 5
25. I prefer the company having higher pay rates but lower safety records to the
company having better safety records but average pay rates
1 2 3 4 5
